Focus on the resuscitation of cardiac arrest under special circumstances_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

 ZHANG Mao , XU Jiefeng

Department of Emergency Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Institute of Emergency Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310009, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

ZHANG Mao, Email: z2jzk@zju.edu.cn

Keywords：

Trauma; Poisoning; Drowning; Pregnancy; Cardiac arrest; Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.201911019

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Currently, cardiac arrest has become a major public health problem, which has a high incidence rate and a high mortality rate in humans. With the continuous advancement of cardiopulmonary resuscitation techniques, the overall prognosis of cardiac arrest victims is gradually improved. However, cardiac arrest events under special circumstances are still serious threats to human health. This article reviews the progress of epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment characteristics, and key points of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in those special cardiac arrest events associated with trauma, poisoning, drowning and pregnancy.

Citation： ZHANG Mao, XU Jiefeng. Focus on the resuscitation of cardiac arrest under special circumstances. West China Medical Journal, 2019, 34(11): 1211-1216. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.201911019 Copy

1.	Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2019, 139(10): e56-e528.
2.	Hawkes C, Booth S, Ji C, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes from out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in England. Resuscitation, 2017, 110: 133-140.
3.	Shao F, Li CS, Liang LR, et al. Outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Beijing, China. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(11): 1411-1417.
4.	Harris T, Masud S, Lamond A, et al. Traumatic cardiac arrest: a unique approach. Eur J Emerg Med, 2015, 22(2): 72-78.
5.	Deasy C, Bray J, Smith K, et al. Traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Melbourne, Australia. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(4): 465-470.
6.	Deasy C, Bray J, Smith K, et al. Paediatric traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Melbourne, Australia. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(4): 471-475.
7.	Hopson LR, Hirsh E, Delgado J, et al. Guidelines for withholding or termination of resuscitation in prehospital traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest. J Am Coll Surg, 2003, 196(3): 475-481.
8.	Mollberg NM, Wise SR, Berman K, et al. The consequences of noncompliance with guidelines for withholding or terminating resuscitation in traumatic cardiac arrest patients. J Trauma, 2011, 71(4): 997-1002.
9.	Millin MG, Galvagno SM, Khandker SR, et al. Withholding and termination of resuscitation of adult cardiopulmonary arrest secondary to trauma: resource document to the joint NAEMSP-ACSCOT position statements. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2013, 75(3): 459-467.
10.	Lockey D, Crewdson K, Davies G. Traumatic cardiac arrest: who are the survivors?. Ann Emerg Med, 2006, 48(3): 240-244.
11.	Leis CC, Hernández CC, Blanco MJ, et al. Traumatic cardiac arrest: should advanced life support be initiated?. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2013, 74(2): 634-638.
12.	Zwingmann J, Lefering R, Feucht M, et al. Outcome and predictors for successful resuscitation in the emergency room of adult patients in traumatic cardiorespiratory arrest. Crit Care, 2016, 20: 282.
13.	Kleber C, Giesecke MT, Lindner T, et al. Requirement for a structured algorithm in cardiac arrest following major trauma: epidemiology, management errors, and preventability of traumatic deaths in Berlin. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(3): 405-410.
14.	Cera SM, Mostafa G, Sing RF, et al. Physiologic predictors of survival in post-traumatic arrest. Am Surg, 2003, 69(2): 140-144.
15.	Tarmey NT, Park CL, Bartels OJ, et al. Prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation time in traumatic arrest. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 72(3): 800-801.
16.	Endo A, Shiraishi A, Otomo Y, et al. Open-chest versus closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation in blunt trauma: analysis of a nationwide trauma registry. Crit Care, 2017, 21(1): 169.
17.	Lin YR, Syue YJ, Buddhakosai W, et al. Impact of different initial epinephrine treatment time points on the early postresuscitative hemodynamic status of children with traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Medicine (Baltimore), 2016, 95(12): e3195.
18.	Irfan FB, Consunji R, El-Menyar A, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of out-of-hospital traumatic cardiac arrest in Qatar: a nationwide population-based study. Int J Cardiol, 2017, 240: 438-443.
19.	Smith JE, Rickard A, Wise D. Traumatic cardiac arrest. J R Soc Med, 2015, 108(1): 11-16.
20.	Mistry N, Bleetman A, Roberts KJ. Chest decompression during the resuscitation of patients in prehospital traumatic cardiac arrest. Emerg Med J, 2009, 26(10): 738-740.
21.	Peters JH, Biert J, Ketelaars R. Reply to letter: requirement for a structured algorithm in cardiac arrest following major trauma: epidemiology, management errors, and preventability of traumatic deaths in Berlin. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(7): e105.
22.	Scalea TM, DuBose J, Moore EE, et al. Western Trauma Association critical decisions in trauma: management of the mangled extremity. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 72(1): 86-93.
23.	Barnard EBG, Manning JE, Smith JE, et al. A comparison of selective aortic arch perfusion and resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta for the management of hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest: a translational model in large swine. PLoS Med, 2017, 14(7): e1002349.
24.	Pieper A, Thony F, Brun J, et al. Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta for pelvic blunt trauma and life-threatening hemorrhage: a 20-year experience in a level I trauma center. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2018, 84(3): 449-453.
25.	Davies GE, Lockey DJ. Thirteen survivors of prehospital thoracotomy for penetrating trauma: a prehospital physician-performed resuscitation procedure that can yield good results. J Trauma, 2011, 70(5): E75-E78.
26.	Seamon MJ, Chovanes J, Fox N, et al. The use of emergency department thoracotomy for traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest. Injury, 2012, 43(9): 1355-1361.
27.	Cureton EL, Yeung LY, Kwan RO, et al. The heart of the matter: utility of ultrasound of cardiac activity during traumatic arrest. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 73(1): 102-110.
28.	Ferrada P, Wolfe L, Anand RJ, et al. Use of limited transthoracic echocardiography in patients with traumatic cardiac arrest decreases the rate of nontherapeutic thoracotomy and hospital costs. J Ultrasound Med, 2014, 33(10): 1829-1832.
29.	Tseng YH, Wu TI, Liu YC, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal life support in post-traumatic shock and cardiac arrest: lessons learned. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 2014, 22: 12.
30.	Tisherman SA, Alam HB, Rhee PM, et al. Development of the emergency preservation and resuscitation for cardiac arrest from trauma clinical trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2017, 83(5): 803-809.
31.	Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Cantilena LR Jr, et al. 2013 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS): 31st annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2014, 52(10): 1032-1283.
32.	Park JH, Shin SD, Song KJ, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of poisoning-induced out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(1): 51-57.
33.	Truhlář A, Deakin CD, Soar J, et al. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2015: section 4. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation, 2015, 95: 148-201.
34.	Gunja N, Graudins A. Management of cardiac arrest following poisoning. Emerg Med Australas, 2011, 23(1): 16-22.
35.	Lam SH, Majlesi N, Vilke GM. Use of intravenous fat emulsion in the emergency department for the critically Ⅲ poisoned patient. J Emerg Med, 2016, 51(2): 203-214.
36.	Gosselin S, Hoegberg LC, Hoffman RS, et al. Evidence-based recommendations on the use of intravenous lipid emulsion therapy in poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2016, 54(10): 899-923.
37.	Elliott A, Dubé PA, Cossette-Côté A, et al. Intraosseous administration of antidotes - a systematic review. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2017, 55(10): 1025-1054.
38.	St-Onge M, Fan E, Mégarbane B, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for patients in shock or cardiac arrest secondary to cardiotoxicant poisoning: a cost-effectiveness analysis. J Crit Care, 2015, 30(2): 437.e7-437.e14.
39.	Masson R, Colas V, Parienti JJ, et al. A comparison of survival with and without extracorporeal life support treatment for severe poisoning due to drug intoxication. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(11): 1413-1417.
40.	Idris AH, Berg RA, Bierens J, et al. Recommended guidelines for uniform reporting of data from drowning: the " Utstein style”. Resuscitation, 2003, 59(1): 45-57.
41.	Szpilman D, Bierens JJ, Handley AJ, et al. Drowning. N Engl J Med, 2012, 366(22): 2102-2110.
42.	Tipton MJ, Golden FS. A proposed decision-making guide for the search, rescue and resuscitation of submersion (head under) victims based on expert opinion. Resuscitation, 2011, 82(7): 819-824.
43.	World Health Organization. Global report on drowning: preventing a leading killer. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014: 4-7. [2019-11-01]. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/143893/9789241564786_eng.pdf;jsessionid=BF3FD2BBD00CFD4861807C989007BE9D?sequence=1.
44.	Yin Z, Wu J, Luo J, et al. Burden and trend analysis of injury mortality in China among children aged 0-14 years from 2004 to 2011. BMJ Open, 2015, 5(7): e007307.
45.	Handley AJ. Drowning. BMJ, 2014, 348: g1734.
46.	Bierens JJLM, Branche CM, Brewster BC, et al. Handbook on drowning: prevention, rescue, treatment. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006: 197-202.
47.	Szpilman D, Soares M. In-water resuscitation--is it worthwhile?. Resuscitation, 2004, 63(1): 25-31.
48.	Polderman KH. Application of therapeutic hypothermia in the ICU: opportunities and pitfalls of a promising treatment modality. Part 1: Indications and evidence. Intensive Care Med, 2004, 30(4): 556-575.
49.	Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, et al. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2010 section 8. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances: electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution. Resuscitation, 2010, 81(10): 1400-1433.
50.	Manolios N, Mackie I. Drowning and near-drowning on Australian beaches patrolled by life-savers: a 10-year study, 1973-1983. Med J Aust, 1988, 148(4): 165-171.
51.	Gregorakos L, Markou N, Psalida V, et al. Near-drowning: clinical course of lung injury in adults. Lung, 2009, 187(2): 93-97.
52.	Orlowski JP, Abulleil MM, Phillips JM. The hemodynamic and cardiovascular effects of near-drowning in hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic solutions. Ann Emerg Med, 1989, 18(10): 1044-1049.
53.	Romlin BS, Winberg H, Janson M, et al. Excellent outcome with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation after accidental profound hypothermia (13.8℃) and drowning. Crit Care Med, 2015, 43(11): e521-e525.
54.	Kim K, Lee WY, Kim HS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in near-drowning patients with cardiac or pulmonary failure. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 2014, 22: 77.
55.	Jeejeebhoy FM, Zelop CM, Lipman S, et al. Cardiac arrest in pregnancy: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2015, 132(18): 1747-1773.
56.	van Waning VH, van der Weiden RM, de Feiter PW, et al. Cardiac arrest in pregnancy: lessons to be learned!. Intensive Care Med, 2012, 38(4): 721.
57.	周远洋, 朱军, 王艳萍, 等. 1996-2010 年全国孕产妇死亡率变化趋势. 中华预防医学杂志, 2011, 45(10): 934-939.
58.	颜雪梅, 金明华, 刘智昱. 孕产妇心脏骤停的临床研究. 中国现代医学杂志, 2015, 25(14): 63-66.
59.	Mhyre JM, Tsen LC, Einav S, et al. Cardiac arrest during hospitalization for delivery in the United States, 1998-2011. Anesthesiology, 2014, 120(4): 810-818.
60.	Hasegawa J, Sekizawa A, Tanaka H, et al. Current status of pregnancy-related maternal mortality in Japan: a report from the maternal death exploratory committee in Japan. BMJ Open, 2016, 6(3): e010304.
61.	梁娟, 李维敏, 王艳萍, 等. 1996~2000 年全国孕产妇死亡率变化趋势分析. 中华妇产科杂志, 2003, 38(5): 257-260.
62.	黄天晴, 陈敦金, 刘慧姝, 等. 心跳骤停孕产妇发病原因及临床特点分析. 中华妇产科杂志, 2011, 46(10): 742-747.
63.	Kleinman ME, Brennan EE, Goldberger ZD, et al. Part 5: adult basic life support and cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality: 2015 American Heart Association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation, 2015, 132(18 Suppl 2): S414-S435.

1. Benjamin EJ, Muntner P, Alonso A, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2019 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2019, 139(10): e56-e528.
2. Hawkes C, Booth S, Ji C, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes from out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in England. Resuscitation, 2017, 110: 133-140.
3. Shao F, Li CS, Liang LR, et al. Outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Beijing, China. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(11): 1411-1417.
4. Harris T, Masud S, Lamond A, et al. Traumatic cardiac arrest: a unique approach. Eur J Emerg Med, 2015, 22(2): 72-78.
5. Deasy C, Bray J, Smith K, et al. Traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Melbourne, Australia. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(4): 465-470.
6. Deasy C, Bray J, Smith K, et al. Paediatric traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrests in Melbourne, Australia. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(4): 471-475.
7. Hopson LR, Hirsh E, Delgado J, et al. Guidelines for withholding or termination of resuscitation in prehospital traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest. J Am Coll Surg, 2003, 196(3): 475-481.
8. Mollberg NM, Wise SR, Berman K, et al. The consequences of noncompliance with guidelines for withholding or terminating resuscitation in traumatic cardiac arrest patients. J Trauma, 2011, 71(4): 997-1002.
9. Millin MG, Galvagno SM, Khandker SR, et al. Withholding and termination of resuscitation of adult cardiopulmonary arrest secondary to trauma: resource document to the joint NAEMSP-ACSCOT position statements. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2013, 75(3): 459-467.
10. Lockey D, Crewdson K, Davies G. Traumatic cardiac arrest: who are the survivors?. Ann Emerg Med, 2006, 48(3): 240-244.
11. Leis CC, Hernández CC, Blanco MJ, et al. Traumatic cardiac arrest: should advanced life support be initiated?. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2013, 74(2): 634-638.
12. Zwingmann J, Lefering R, Feucht M, et al. Outcome and predictors for successful resuscitation in the emergency room of adult patients in traumatic cardiorespiratory arrest. Crit Care, 2016, 20: 282.
13. Kleber C, Giesecke MT, Lindner T, et al. Requirement for a structured algorithm in cardiac arrest following major trauma: epidemiology, management errors, and preventability of traumatic deaths in Berlin. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(3): 405-410.
14. Cera SM, Mostafa G, Sing RF, et al. Physiologic predictors of survival in post-traumatic arrest. Am Surg, 2003, 69(2): 140-144.
15. Tarmey NT, Park CL, Bartels OJ, et al. Prehospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation time in traumatic arrest. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 72(3): 800-801.
16. Endo A, Shiraishi A, Otomo Y, et al. Open-chest versus closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation in blunt trauma: analysis of a nationwide trauma registry. Crit Care, 2017, 21(1): 169.
17. Lin YR, Syue YJ, Buddhakosai W, et al. Impact of different initial epinephrine treatment time points on the early postresuscitative hemodynamic status of children with traumatic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Medicine (Baltimore), 2016, 95(12): e3195.
18. Irfan FB, Consunji R, El-Menyar A, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of out-of-hospital traumatic cardiac arrest in Qatar: a nationwide population-based study. Int J Cardiol, 2017, 240: 438-443.
19. Smith JE, Rickard A, Wise D. Traumatic cardiac arrest. J R Soc Med, 2015, 108(1): 11-16.
20. Mistry N, Bleetman A, Roberts KJ. Chest decompression during the resuscitation of patients in prehospital traumatic cardiac arrest. Emerg Med J, 2009, 26(10): 738-740.
21. Peters JH, Biert J, Ketelaars R. Reply to letter: requirement for a structured algorithm in cardiac arrest following major trauma: epidemiology, management errors, and preventability of traumatic deaths in Berlin. Resuscitation, 2014, 85(7): e105.
22. Scalea TM, DuBose J, Moore EE, et al. Western Trauma Association critical decisions in trauma: management of the mangled extremity. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 72(1): 86-93.
23. Barnard EBG, Manning JE, Smith JE, et al. A comparison of selective aortic arch perfusion and resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta for the management of hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest: a translational model in large swine. PLoS Med, 2017, 14(7): e1002349.
24. Pieper A, Thony F, Brun J, et al. Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta for pelvic blunt trauma and life-threatening hemorrhage: a 20-year experience in a level I trauma center. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2018, 84(3): 449-453.
25. Davies GE, Lockey DJ. Thirteen survivors of prehospital thoracotomy for penetrating trauma: a prehospital physician-performed resuscitation procedure that can yield good results. J Trauma, 2011, 70(5): E75-E78.
26. Seamon MJ, Chovanes J, Fox N, et al. The use of emergency department thoracotomy for traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest. Injury, 2012, 43(9): 1355-1361.
27. Cureton EL, Yeung LY, Kwan RO, et al. The heart of the matter: utility of ultrasound of cardiac activity during traumatic arrest. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2012, 73(1): 102-110.
28. Ferrada P, Wolfe L, Anand RJ, et al. Use of limited transthoracic echocardiography in patients with traumatic cardiac arrest decreases the rate of nontherapeutic thoracotomy and hospital costs. J Ultrasound Med, 2014, 33(10): 1829-1832.
29. Tseng YH, Wu TI, Liu YC, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal life support in post-traumatic shock and cardiac arrest: lessons learned. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 2014, 22: 12.
30. Tisherman SA, Alam HB, Rhee PM, et al. Development of the emergency preservation and resuscitation for cardiac arrest from trauma clinical trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 2017, 83(5): 803-809.
31. Mowry JB, Spyker DA, Cantilena LR Jr, et al. 2013 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers’ National Poison Data System (NPDS): 31st annual report. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2014, 52(10): 1032-1283.
32. Park JH, Shin SD, Song KJ, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of poisoning-induced out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(1): 51-57.
33. Truhlář A, Deakin CD, Soar J, et al. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2015: section 4. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation, 2015, 95: 148-201.
34. Gunja N, Graudins A. Management of cardiac arrest following poisoning. Emerg Med Australas, 2011, 23(1): 16-22.
35. Lam SH, Majlesi N, Vilke GM. Use of intravenous fat emulsion in the emergency department for the critically Ⅲ poisoned patient. J Emerg Med, 2016, 51(2): 203-214.
36. Gosselin S, Hoegberg LC, Hoffman RS, et al. Evidence-based recommendations on the use of intravenous lipid emulsion therapy in poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2016, 54(10): 899-923.
37. Elliott A, Dubé PA, Cossette-Côté A, et al. Intraosseous administration of antidotes - a systematic review. Clin Toxicol (Phila), 2017, 55(10): 1025-1054.
38. St-Onge M, Fan E, Mégarbane B, et al. Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for patients in shock or cardiac arrest secondary to cardiotoxicant poisoning: a cost-effectiveness analysis. J Crit Care, 2015, 30(2): 437.e7-437.e14.
39. Masson R, Colas V, Parienti JJ, et al. A comparison of survival with and without extracorporeal life support treatment for severe poisoning due to drug intoxication. Resuscitation, 2012, 83(11): 1413-1417.
40. Idris AH, Berg RA, Bierens J, et al. Recommended guidelines for uniform reporting of data from drowning: the " Utstein style”. Resuscitation, 2003, 59(1): 45-57.
41. Szpilman D, Bierens JJ, Handley AJ, et al. Drowning. N Engl J Med, 2012, 366(22): 2102-2110.
42. Tipton MJ, Golden FS. A proposed decision-making guide for the search, rescue and resuscitation of submersion (head under) victims based on expert opinion. Resuscitation, 2011, 82(7): 819-824.
43. World Health Organization. Global report on drowning: preventing a leading killer. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014: 4-7. [2019-11-01]. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/143893/9789241564786_eng.pdf;jsessionid=BF3FD2BBD00CFD4861807C989007BE9D?sequence=1.
44. Yin Z, Wu J, Luo J, et al. Burden and trend analysis of injury mortality in China among children aged 0-14 years from 2004 to 2011. BMJ Open, 2015, 5(7): e007307.
45. Handley AJ. Drowning. BMJ, 2014, 348: g1734.
46. Bierens JJLM, Branche CM, Brewster BC, et al. Handbook on drowning: prevention, rescue, treatment. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006: 197-202.
47. Szpilman D, Soares M. In-water resuscitation--is it worthwhile?. Resuscitation, 2004, 63(1): 25-31.
48. Polderman KH. Application of therapeutic hypothermia in the ICU: opportunities and pitfalls of a promising treatment modality. Part 1: Indications and evidence. Intensive Care Med, 2004, 30(4): 556-575.
49. Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, et al. European resuscitation council guidelines for resuscitation 2010 section 8. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances: electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution. Resuscitation, 2010, 81(10): 1400-1433.
50. Manolios N, Mackie I. Drowning and near-drowning on Australian beaches patrolled by life-savers: a 10-year study, 1973-1983. Med J Aust, 1988, 148(4): 165-171.
51. Gregorakos L, Markou N, Psalida V, et al. Near-drowning: clinical course of lung injury in adults. Lung, 2009, 187(2): 93-97.
52. Orlowski JP, Abulleil MM, Phillips JM. The hemodynamic and cardiovascular effects of near-drowning in hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic solutions. Ann Emerg Med, 1989, 18(10): 1044-1049.
53. Romlin BS, Winberg H, Janson M, et al. Excellent outcome with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation after accidental profound hypothermia (13.8℃) and drowning. Crit Care Med, 2015, 43(11): e521-e525.
54. Kim K, Lee WY, Kim HS, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in near-drowning patients with cardiac or pulmonary failure. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 2014, 22: 77.
55. Jeejeebhoy FM, Zelop CM, Lipman S, et al. Cardiac arrest in pregnancy: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 2015, 132(18): 1747-1773.
56. van Waning VH, van der Weiden RM, de Feiter PW, et al. Cardiac arrest in pregnancy: lessons to be learned!. Intensive Care Med, 2012, 38(4): 721.
57. 周远洋, 朱军, 王艳萍, 等. 1996-2010 年全国孕产妇死亡率变化趋势. 中华预防医学杂志, 2011, 45(10): 934-939.
58. 颜雪梅, 金明华, 刘智昱. 孕产妇心脏骤停的临床研究. 中国现代医学杂志, 2015, 25(14): 63-66.
59. Mhyre JM, Tsen LC, Einav S, et al. Cardiac arrest during hospitalization for delivery in the United States, 1998-2011. Anesthesiology, 2014, 120(4): 810-818.
60. Hasegawa J, Sekizawa A, Tanaka H, et al. Current status of pregnancy-related maternal mortality in Japan: a report from the maternal death exploratory committee in Japan. BMJ Open, 2016, 6(3): e010304.
61. 梁娟, 李维敏, 王艳萍, 等. 1996~2000 年全国孕产妇死亡率变化趋势分析. 中华妇产科杂志, 2003, 38(5): 257-260.
62. 黄天晴, 陈敦金, 刘慧姝, 等. 心跳骤停孕产妇发病原因及临床特点分析. 中华妇产科杂志, 2011, 46(10): 742-747.
63. Kleinman ME, Brennan EE, Goldberger ZD, et al. Part 5: adult basic life support and cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality: 2015 American Heart Association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation, 2015, 132(18 Suppl 2): S414-S435.

West China Medical Journal

Focus on the resuscitation of cardiac arrest under special circumstances

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