Research progress of new treatment options for clinical bacterial biofilm infection_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

YAN Xin’an ^1,2 , Walter M Chirume ^1,2 , LIN Yixiang ^1,2 ,  FANG Yue ^1,2

1. Department of Orthopedic Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;
2. Trauma Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

FANG Yue, Email: fangyue1968@163.com

Keywords：

Bacterial biofilm; osteomyelitis; biofilm infection; anti-infection; probiotics; organic acid

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202110175

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Bacterial biofilms are associated with at least 80% of human bacterial infections. The clinical treatment of biofilm infection is still arduous, and therefore many new treatment options are under study, such as probiotics and their derivatives, quorum sensing inhibitors, antimicrobial peptides, phage therapy, organic acids, light therapy, and plant extracts. However, most of these schemes are not mature, and it is important to develop new research directions of anti-biofilms.

Citation： YAN Xin’an, Walter M Chirume, LIN Yixiang, FANG Yue. Research progress of new treatment options for clinical bacterial biofilm infection. West China Medical Journal, 2023, 38(8): 1276-1280. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202110175 Copy

1.	Zobell CE, Allen EC. Attachment of marine bacteria to submerged slides. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 1933, 30(9): 1409-1411.
2.	Costerton JW, Geesey GG, Cheng KJ. How bacteria stick. Sci Am, 1978, 238(1): 86-95.
3.	Bjarnsholt T, Buhlin K, Dufrêne YF, et al. Biofilm formation - what we can learn from recent developments. J Intern Med, 2018, 284(4): 332-345.
4.	Yin W, Wang Y, Liu L, et al. Biofilms: the microbial “protective clothing” in extreme environments. Int J Mol Sci, 2019, 20(14): 3423.
5.	Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. The state of the world’s antibiotics 2015. Washington, D.C.: CDDEP, 2015.
6.	Carvalho FM, Teixeira-Santos R, Mergulhão FJM, et al. The use of probiotics to fight biofilms in medical devices: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Microorganisms, 2020, 9(1): 27.
7.	Sánchez B, Delgado S, Blanco-Míguez A, et al. Probiotics, gut microbiota, and their influence on host health and disease. Mol Nutr Food Res, 2017, 61(1): 1600240.
8.	Wasfi R, Abd El-Rahman OA, Zafer MM, et al. Probiotic Lactobacillus sp. inhibit growth, biofilm formation and gene expression of caries-inducing Streptococcus mutans. J Cell Mol Med, 2018, 22(3): 1972-1983.
9.	James KM, MacDonald KW, Chanyi RM, et al. Inhibition of Candida albicans biofilm formation and modulation of gene expression by probiotic cells and supernatant. J Med Microbiol, 2016, 65(4): 328-336.
10.	Tan Y, Leonhard M, Moser D, et al. Inhibitory effect of probiotic lactobacilli supernatants on single and mixed non-albicans Candida species biofilm. Arch Oral Biol, 2018, 85: 40-45.
11.	Ramos AN, Cabral ME, Noseda D, et al. Antipathogenic properties of Lactobacillus plantarum on Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the potential use of its supernatants in the treatment of infected chronic wounds. Wound Repair Regen, 2012, 20(4): 552-562.
12.	Varma P, Nisha N, Dinesh KR, et al. Anti-infective properties of Lactobacillus fermentum against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol, 2011, 20(3): 137-143.
13.	Kaur S, Sharma P, Kalia N, et al. Anti-biofilm properties of the fecal probiotic lactobacilli against Vibrio spp. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2018, 8: 120.
14.	Lau CS, Chamberlain RS. Probiotics are effective at preventing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Gen Med, 2016, 9: 27-37.
15.	Gómez NC, Ramiro JM, Quecan BX, et al. Use of potential probiotic lactic acid bacteria (lab) biofilms for the control of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Escherichia coli O157: H7 biofilms formation. Front Microbiol, 2016, 7: 863.
16.	Chen Q, Zhu Z, Wang J, et al. Probiotic E. coli Nissle 1917 biofilms on silicone substrates for bacterial interference against pathogen colonization. Acta Biomater, 2017, 50: 353-360.
17.	Berríos P, Fuentes JA, Salas D, et al. Inhibitory effect of biofilm-forming Lactobacillus kunkeei strains against virulent Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro and in honeycomb moth (Galleria mellonella) infection model. Benef Microbes, 2018, 9(2): 257-268.
18.	Tan L, Fu J, Feng F, et al. Engineered probiotics biofilm enhances osseointegration via immunoregulation and anti-infection. Sci Adv, 2020, 6(46): eaba5723.
19.	Mukherjee S, Bassler BL. Bacterial quorum sensing in complex and dynamically changing environments. Nat Rev Microbiol, 2019, 17(6): 371-382.
20.	Brackman G, Coenye T. Quorum sensing inhibitors as anti-biofilm agents. Curr Pharm Des, 2015, 21(1): 5-11.
21.	García-Contreras R, Nuñez-López L, Jasso-Chávez R, et al. Quorum sensing enhancement of the stress response promotes resistance to quorum quenching and prevents social cheating. ISME J, 2015, 9(1): 115-125.
22.	Bandyopadhyay D, Prashar D, Luk YY. Anti-fouling chemistry of chiral monolayers: enhancing biofilm resistance on racemic surface. Langmuir, 2011, 27(10): 6124-6131.
23.	Styles MJ, Boursier ME, McEwan MA, et al. Autoinducer-fluorophore conjugates enable FRET in LuxR proteins in vitro and in cells. Nat Chem Biol, 2022, 18(10): 1115-1124.
24.	Zasloff M. Antimicrobial peptides of multicellular organisms. Nature, 2002, 415(6870): 389-395.
25.	Nakatsuji T, Gallo RL. Antimicrobial peptides: old molecules with new ideas. J Invest Dermatol, 2012, 132(3 Pt 2): 887-895.
26.	Sierra JM, Fusté E, Rabanal F, et al. An overview of antimicrobial peptides and the latest advances in their development. Expert Opin Biol Ther, 2017, 17(6): 663-676.
27.	Chung PY, Khanum R. Antimicrobial peptides as potential anti-biofilm agents against multidrug-resistant bacteria. J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2017, 50(4): 405-410.
28.	Lai Y, Gallo RL. AMPed up immunity: how antimicrobial peptides have multiple roles in immune defense. Trends Immunol, 2009, 30(3): 131-141.
29.	Zhou Y, Peng Y. Synergistic effect of clinically used antibiotics and peptide antibiotics against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Exp Ther Med, 2013, 6(4): 1000-1004.
30.	Bhattacharjya S, Ramamoorthy A. Multifunctional host defense peptides: functional and mechanistic insights from NMR structures of potent antimicrobial peptides. FEBS J, 2009, 276(22): 6465-6473.
31.	Rudilla H, Fusté E, Cajal Y, et al. Synergistic antipseudomonal effects of synthetic peptide AMP38 and carbapenems. Molecules, 2016, 21(9): 1223.
32.	Pletzer D, Hancock RE. Antibiofilm peptides: potential as broad-spectrum agents. J Bacteriol, 2016, 198(19): 2572-2578.
33.	Rios AC, Moutinho CG, Pinto FC, et al. Alternatives to overcoming bacterial resistances: state-of-the-art. Microbiol Res, 2016, 191: 51-80.
34.	Eckert R, Qi F, Yarbrough DK, et al. Adding selectivity to antimicrobial peptides: rational design of a multidomain peptide against Pseudomonas spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(4): 1480-1488.
35.	Bowdish DM, Davidson DJ, Hancock RE. A re-evaluation of the role of host defence peptides in mammalian immunity. Curr Protein Pept Sci, 2005, 6(1): 35-51.
36.	Cisek AA, Dąbrowska I, Gregorczyk KP, et al. Phage therapy in bacterial infections treatment: one hundred years after the discovery of bacteriophages. Curr Microbiol, 2017, 74(2): 277-283.
37.	Kutter EM, Kuhl SJ, Abedon ST. Re-establishing a place for phage therapy in western medicine. Future Microbiol, 2015, 10(5): 685-688.
38.	Morris J, Kelly N, Elliott L, et al. Evaluation of bacteriophage anti-biofilm activity for potential control of orthopedic implant-related infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Surg Infect (Larchmt), 2019, 20(1): 16-24.
39.	Koskella B, Meaden S. Understanding bacteriophage specificity in natural microbial communities. Viruses, 2013, 5(3): 806-823.
40.	McVay CS, Velásquez M, Fralick JA. Phage therapy of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in a mouse burn wound model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(6): 1934-1938.
41.	Carmody LA, Gill JJ, Summer EJ, et al. Efficacy of bacteriophage therapy in a model of Burkholderia cenocepacia pulmonary infection. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201(2): 264-271.
42.	Debarbieux L, Leduc D, Maura D, et al. Bacteriophages can treat and prevent Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infections. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201(7): 1096-1104.
43.	Fu W, Forster T, Mayer O, et al. Bacteriophage cocktail for the prevention of biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa on catheters in an in vitro model system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(1): 397-404.
44.	Hughes G, Webber MA. Novel approaches to the treatment of bacterial biofilm infections. Br J Pharmacol, 2017, 174(14): 2237-2246.
45.	Halstead FD, Rauf M, Moiemen NS, et al. The antibacterial activity of acetic acid against biofilm-producing pathogens of relevance to burns patients. PLoS One, 2015, 10(9): e0136190.
46.	Nagoba BS, Selkar SP, Wadher BJ, et al. Acetic acid treatment of pseudomonal wound infections--a review. J Infect Public Health, 2013, 6(6): 410-415.
47.	Bjarnsholt T, Alhede M, Jensen PØ, et al. Antibiofilm properties of acetic acid. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle), 2015, 4(7): 363-372.
48.	Sloss JM, Cumberland N, Milner SM. Acetic acid used for the elimination of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from burn and soft tissue wounds. J R Army Med Corps, 1993, 139(2): 49-51.
49.	Percival SL, Suleman L, Francolini I, et al. The effectiveness of photodynamic therapy on planktonic cells and biofilms and its role in wound healing. Future Microbiol, 2014, 9(9): 1083-1094.
50.	Huang L, Wang M, Dai T, et al. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy with decacationic monoadducts and bisadducts of [70]fullerene: in vitro and in vivo studies. Nanomedicine (Lond), 2014, 9(2): 253-266.
51.	Rosa LP, da Silva FC, Nader SA, et al. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms in bone specimens using methylene blue, toluidine blue ortho and malachite green: An in vitro study. Arch Oral Biol, 2015, 60(5): 675-680.
52.	Mai B, Wang X, Liu Q, et al. The antibacterial effect of sinoporphyrin sodium photodynamic therapy on Staphylococcus aureus planktonic and biofilm cultures. Lasers Surg Med, 2016, 48(4): 400-408.
53.	Zhang QZ, Zhao KQ, Wu Y, et al. 5-aminolevulinic acid-mediated photodynamic therapy and its strain-dependent combined effect with antibiotics on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm. PLoS One, 2017, 12(3): e0174627.
54.	Bak J, Ladefoged SD, Tvede M, et al. Dose requirements for UVC disinfection of catheter biofilms. Biofouling, 2009, 25(4): 289-296.
55.	Dai T, Kharkwal GB, Zhao J, et al. Ultraviolet-C light for treatment of Candida albicans burn infection in mice. Photochem Photobiol, 2011, 87(2): 342-349.
56.	Dai T, Garcia B, Murray CK, et al. UVC light prophylaxis for cutaneous wound infections in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2012, 56(7): 3841-3848.
57.	Suresh MK, Biswas R, Biswas L. An update on recent developments in the prevention and treatment of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Int J Med Microbiol, 2019, 309(1): 1-12.
58.	Shepherd J. Best served small: nano battles in the war against wound biofilm infections. Emerg Top Life Sci, 2020, 4(6): 567-580.
59.	Mauro N, Fiorica C, Giuffrè M, et al. A self-sterilizing fluorescent nanocomposite as versatile material with broad-spectrum antibiofilm features. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2020, 117: 111308.
60.	Brachner A, Fragouli D, Duarte IF, et al. Assessment of human health risks posed by nano-and microplastics is currently not feasible. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020, 17(23): 8832.
61.	Lorenzetti M, Dogša I, Stošicki T, et al. The influence of surface modification on bacterial adhesion to titanium-based substrates. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2015, 7(3): 1644-1651.
62.	Khalid S, Gao A, Wang G, et al. Tuning surface topographies on biomaterials to control bacterial infection. Biomater Sci, 2020, 8(24): 6840-6857.

1. Zobell CE, Allen EC. Attachment of marine bacteria to submerged slides. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 1933, 30(9): 1409-1411.
2. Costerton JW, Geesey GG, Cheng KJ. How bacteria stick. Sci Am, 1978, 238(1): 86-95.
3. Bjarnsholt T, Buhlin K, Dufrêne YF, et al. Biofilm formation - what we can learn from recent developments. J Intern Med, 2018, 284(4): 332-345.
4. Yin W, Wang Y, Liu L, et al. Biofilms: the microbial “protective clothing” in extreme environments. Int J Mol Sci, 2019, 20(14): 3423.
5. Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy. The state of the world’s antibiotics 2015. Washington, D.C.: CDDEP, 2015.
6. Carvalho FM, Teixeira-Santos R, Mergulhão FJM, et al. The use of probiotics to fight biofilms in medical devices: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Microorganisms, 2020, 9(1): 27.
7. Sánchez B, Delgado S, Blanco-Míguez A, et al. Probiotics, gut microbiota, and their influence on host health and disease. Mol Nutr Food Res, 2017, 61(1): 1600240.
8. Wasfi R, Abd El-Rahman OA, Zafer MM, et al. Probiotic Lactobacillus sp. inhibit growth, biofilm formation and gene expression of caries-inducing Streptococcus mutans. J Cell Mol Med, 2018, 22(3): 1972-1983.
9. James KM, MacDonald KW, Chanyi RM, et al. Inhibition of Candida albicans biofilm formation and modulation of gene expression by probiotic cells and supernatant. J Med Microbiol, 2016, 65(4): 328-336.
10. Tan Y, Leonhard M, Moser D, et al. Inhibitory effect of probiotic lactobacilli supernatants on single and mixed non-albicans Candida species biofilm. Arch Oral Biol, 2018, 85: 40-45.
11. Ramos AN, Cabral ME, Noseda D, et al. Antipathogenic properties of Lactobacillus plantarum on Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the potential use of its supernatants in the treatment of infected chronic wounds. Wound Repair Regen, 2012, 20(4): 552-562.
12. Varma P, Nisha N, Dinesh KR, et al. Anti-infective properties of Lactobacillus fermentum against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol, 2011, 20(3): 137-143.
13. Kaur S, Sharma P, Kalia N, et al. Anti-biofilm properties of the fecal probiotic lactobacilli against Vibrio spp. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2018, 8: 120.
14. Lau CS, Chamberlain RS. Probiotics are effective at preventing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Gen Med, 2016, 9: 27-37.
15. Gómez NC, Ramiro JM, Quecan BX, et al. Use of potential probiotic lactic acid bacteria (lab) biofilms for the control of Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Escherichia coli O157: H7 biofilms formation. Front Microbiol, 2016, 7: 863.
16. Chen Q, Zhu Z, Wang J, et al. Probiotic E. coli Nissle 1917 biofilms on silicone substrates for bacterial interference against pathogen colonization. Acta Biomater, 2017, 50: 353-360.
17. Berríos P, Fuentes JA, Salas D, et al. Inhibitory effect of biofilm-forming Lactobacillus kunkeei strains against virulent Pseudomonas aeruginosa in vitro and in honeycomb moth (Galleria mellonella) infection model. Benef Microbes, 2018, 9(2): 257-268.
18. Tan L, Fu J, Feng F, et al. Engineered probiotics biofilm enhances osseointegration via immunoregulation and anti-infection. Sci Adv, 2020, 6(46): eaba5723.
19. Mukherjee S, Bassler BL. Bacterial quorum sensing in complex and dynamically changing environments. Nat Rev Microbiol, 2019, 17(6): 371-382.
20. Brackman G, Coenye T. Quorum sensing inhibitors as anti-biofilm agents. Curr Pharm Des, 2015, 21(1): 5-11.
21. García-Contreras R, Nuñez-López L, Jasso-Chávez R, et al. Quorum sensing enhancement of the stress response promotes resistance to quorum quenching and prevents social cheating. ISME J, 2015, 9(1): 115-125.
22. Bandyopadhyay D, Prashar D, Luk YY. Anti-fouling chemistry of chiral monolayers: enhancing biofilm resistance on racemic surface. Langmuir, 2011, 27(10): 6124-6131.
23. Styles MJ, Boursier ME, McEwan MA, et al. Autoinducer-fluorophore conjugates enable FRET in LuxR proteins in vitro and in cells. Nat Chem Biol, 2022, 18(10): 1115-1124.
24. Zasloff M. Antimicrobial peptides of multicellular organisms. Nature, 2002, 415(6870): 389-395.
25. Nakatsuji T, Gallo RL. Antimicrobial peptides: old molecules with new ideas. J Invest Dermatol, 2012, 132(3 Pt 2): 887-895.
26. Sierra JM, Fusté E, Rabanal F, et al. An overview of antimicrobial peptides and the latest advances in their development. Expert Opin Biol Ther, 2017, 17(6): 663-676.
27. Chung PY, Khanum R. Antimicrobial peptides as potential anti-biofilm agents against multidrug-resistant bacteria. J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2017, 50(4): 405-410.
28. Lai Y, Gallo RL. AMPed up immunity: how antimicrobial peptides have multiple roles in immune defense. Trends Immunol, 2009, 30(3): 131-141.
29. Zhou Y, Peng Y. Synergistic effect of clinically used antibiotics and peptide antibiotics against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Exp Ther Med, 2013, 6(4): 1000-1004.
30. Bhattacharjya S, Ramamoorthy A. Multifunctional host defense peptides: functional and mechanistic insights from NMR structures of potent antimicrobial peptides. FEBS J, 2009, 276(22): 6465-6473.
31. Rudilla H, Fusté E, Cajal Y, et al. Synergistic antipseudomonal effects of synthetic peptide AMP38 and carbapenems. Molecules, 2016, 21(9): 1223.
32. Pletzer D, Hancock RE. Antibiofilm peptides: potential as broad-spectrum agents. J Bacteriol, 2016, 198(19): 2572-2578.
33. Rios AC, Moutinho CG, Pinto FC, et al. Alternatives to overcoming bacterial resistances: state-of-the-art. Microbiol Res, 2016, 191: 51-80.
34. Eckert R, Qi F, Yarbrough DK, et al. Adding selectivity to antimicrobial peptides: rational design of a multidomain peptide against Pseudomonas spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(4): 1480-1488.
35. Bowdish DM, Davidson DJ, Hancock RE. A re-evaluation of the role of host defence peptides in mammalian immunity. Curr Protein Pept Sci, 2005, 6(1): 35-51.
36. Cisek AA, Dąbrowska I, Gregorczyk KP, et al. Phage therapy in bacterial infections treatment: one hundred years after the discovery of bacteriophages. Curr Microbiol, 2017, 74(2): 277-283.
37. Kutter EM, Kuhl SJ, Abedon ST. Re-establishing a place for phage therapy in western medicine. Future Microbiol, 2015, 10(5): 685-688.
38. Morris J, Kelly N, Elliott L, et al. Evaluation of bacteriophage anti-biofilm activity for potential control of orthopedic implant-related infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Surg Infect (Larchmt), 2019, 20(1): 16-24.
39. Koskella B, Meaden S. Understanding bacteriophage specificity in natural microbial communities. Viruses, 2013, 5(3): 806-823.
40. McVay CS, Velásquez M, Fralick JA. Phage therapy of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in a mouse burn wound model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(6): 1934-1938.
41. Carmody LA, Gill JJ, Summer EJ, et al. Efficacy of bacteriophage therapy in a model of Burkholderia cenocepacia pulmonary infection. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201(2): 264-271.
42. Debarbieux L, Leduc D, Maura D, et al. Bacteriophages can treat and prevent Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infections. J Infect Dis, 2010, 201(7): 1096-1104.
43. Fu W, Forster T, Mayer O, et al. Bacteriophage cocktail for the prevention of biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa on catheters in an in vitro model system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(1): 397-404.
44. Hughes G, Webber MA. Novel approaches to the treatment of bacterial biofilm infections. Br J Pharmacol, 2017, 174(14): 2237-2246.
45. Halstead FD, Rauf M, Moiemen NS, et al. The antibacterial activity of acetic acid against biofilm-producing pathogens of relevance to burns patients. PLoS One, 2015, 10(9): e0136190.
46. Nagoba BS, Selkar SP, Wadher BJ, et al. Acetic acid treatment of pseudomonal wound infections--a review. J Infect Public Health, 2013, 6(6): 410-415.
47. Bjarnsholt T, Alhede M, Jensen PØ, et al. Antibiofilm properties of acetic acid. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle), 2015, 4(7): 363-372.
48. Sloss JM, Cumberland N, Milner SM. Acetic acid used for the elimination of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from burn and soft tissue wounds. J R Army Med Corps, 1993, 139(2): 49-51.
49. Percival SL, Suleman L, Francolini I, et al. The effectiveness of photodynamic therapy on planktonic cells and biofilms and its role in wound healing. Future Microbiol, 2014, 9(9): 1083-1094.
50. Huang L, Wang M, Dai T, et al. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy with decacationic monoadducts and bisadducts of [70]fullerene: in vitro and in vivo studies. Nanomedicine (Lond), 2014, 9(2): 253-266.
51. Rosa LP, da Silva FC, Nader SA, et al. Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms in bone specimens using methylene blue, toluidine blue ortho and malachite green: An in vitro study. Arch Oral Biol, 2015, 60(5): 675-680.
52. Mai B, Wang X, Liu Q, et al. The antibacterial effect of sinoporphyrin sodium photodynamic therapy on Staphylococcus aureus planktonic and biofilm cultures. Lasers Surg Med, 2016, 48(4): 400-408.
53. Zhang QZ, Zhao KQ, Wu Y, et al. 5-aminolevulinic acid-mediated photodynamic therapy and its strain-dependent combined effect with antibiotics on Staphylococcus aureus biofilm. PLoS One, 2017, 12(3): e0174627.
54. Bak J, Ladefoged SD, Tvede M, et al. Dose requirements for UVC disinfection of catheter biofilms. Biofouling, 2009, 25(4): 289-296.
55. Dai T, Kharkwal GB, Zhao J, et al. Ultraviolet-C light for treatment of Candida albicans burn infection in mice. Photochem Photobiol, 2011, 87(2): 342-349.
56. Dai T, Garcia B, Murray CK, et al. UVC light prophylaxis for cutaneous wound infections in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2012, 56(7): 3841-3848.
57. Suresh MK, Biswas R, Biswas L. An update on recent developments in the prevention and treatment of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Int J Med Microbiol, 2019, 309(1): 1-12.
58. Shepherd J. Best served small: nano battles in the war against wound biofilm infections. Emerg Top Life Sci, 2020, 4(6): 567-580.
59. Mauro N, Fiorica C, Giuffrè M, et al. A self-sterilizing fluorescent nanocomposite as versatile material with broad-spectrum antibiofilm features. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2020, 117: 111308.
60. Brachner A, Fragouli D, Duarte IF, et al. Assessment of human health risks posed by nano-and microplastics is currently not feasible. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020, 17(23): 8832.
61. Lorenzetti M, Dogša I, Stošicki T, et al. The influence of surface modification on bacterial adhesion to titanium-based substrates. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2015, 7(3): 1644-1651.
62. Khalid S, Gao A, Wang G, et al. Tuning surface topographies on biomaterials to control bacterial infection. Biomater Sci, 2020, 8(24): 6840-6857.

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Research progress of new treatment options for clinical bacterial biofilm infection

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