Alzheimer's disease is a common neuro-degenerative disease. The clinical diagnosis mainly depends on the patient's complaint, the score of mini-mental state examination and Montreal cognitive assessment scale, and the comprehensive judgment of MRI and other imaging examinations. Retina is homologous to brain tissue, and their vascular systems have similar physiological characteristics to small blood vessels in the brain. Numerous studies found that the thickness of retinal nerve fiber layer, visual function, retinal blood vessels and retinal oxygen saturation were changed in AD patients to different degrees. To explore the formation mechanism and significance of ocular fundus changes in AD patients will be helpful to select specific, sensitive and simple methods for early observation and evaluation of AD.
Citation： Li Zebing, Shen Xi. Clinical research progress on ocular fundus changes occur in Alzheimer’s disease. Chinese Journal of Ocular Fundus Diseases, 2019, 35(3): 298-302. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1005-1015.2019.03.021 Copy
| 1. | Turner RC, Lucke-Wold BP, Robson MJ, et al. Alzheimer's disease and chronic traumatic encephalopathy: distinct but possibly overlapping disease entities[J]. Brain Inj, 2016, 30(11): 1279-1292. DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2016.1193631. |
| 2. | Gilmore GC, Levy JA. Spatial contrast sensitivity in Alzheimer’s disease: a comparison of two methods[J]. Optom Vis Sci, 1991, 68(10): 790-794. DOI: 10.1097/00006324-199110000-00006. |
| 3. | Neargarder SA, Stone ER, Cronin-Golomb A, et al. The impact of acuity on performance of four clinical measures of contrast sensitivity in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 2003, 58(1): 54-62. DOI: 10.1093/geronb/58.1.P54. |
| 4. | Cronin-Golomb A. Vision in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Gerontologist, 1995, 35(3): 370-376. DOI: 10.1093/geront/35.3.370. |
| 5. | Blanks JC, Schmidt SY, Torigoe Y, et al. Retinal pathology in Alzheimer’s disease. Ⅱ. regional neuron loss and glial changes in GCL[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 1996, 17(3): 385-395. DOI: 10.1016/0197-4580(96)00009-7. |
| 6. | Blanks JC, Torigoe Y, Hinton DR, et al. Retinal pathology in Alzheimer’s disease.Ⅰ. ganglion cell loss in foveal/parafoveal retina[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 1996, 17(3): 377-384. DOI: 10.1016/0197-4580(96)00010-3. |
| 7. | Hinton DR, Sadun AA, Blanks JC, et al. Optic-nerve degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. N Engl J Med, 1986, 315(8): 485-487. DOI: 10.1056/nejm198608213150804. |
| 8. | Sadun AA, Bassi CJ. Optic nerve damage in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Ophthalmology, 1990, 97(1): 9-17. DOI: 10.1016/S0161-6420(90)32621-0. |
| 9. | Cunha LP, Lopes LC, Costa-Cunha LV, et al. Macular thickness measurements with frequency domain-OCT for quantification of retinal neural loss and its correlation with cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s disease[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2016, 11(4): 153830[2016-04-22]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153830. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153830. |
| 10. | Kirbas S, Turkyilmaz K, Anlar O, et al. Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in patients with Alzheimer disease[J]. J Neuroophthalmol, 2013, 33(1): 58-61. DOI: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e318267fd5f. |
| 11. | Lu Y, Li Z, Zhang X, et al. Retinal nerve fiber layer structure abnormalities in early Alzheimer’s disease: evidence in optical coherence tomography[J]. Neurosci Lett, 2010, 480(1): 69-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.006. |
| 12. | Marziani E, Pomati S, Ramolfo P, et al. Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer and ganglion cell layer thickness in Alzheimer’s disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2013, 54(9): 5953-5958. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.13-12046. |
| 13. | Paquet C, Boissonnot M, Roger F, et al. Abnormal retinal thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Neurosci Lett, 2007, 420(2): 97-99. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.090. |
| 14. | Iseri PK, Altinas O, Tokay T, et al. Relationship between cognitive impairment and retinal morphological and visual functional abnormalities in Alzheimer disease[J]. J Neuroophthalmol, 2006, 26(1): 18-24. DOI: 10.1097/01.wno.0000204645.56873.26. |
| 15. | Kesler A, Vakhapova V, Korczyn AD, et al. Retinal thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 2011, 113(7): 523-526. DOI: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2011.02.014. |
| 16. | Kromer R, Serbecic N, Hausner L, et al. Detection of retinal nerve fiber layer defects in Alzheimer’s disease using SD-OCT[J]. Front Psychiatry, 2014, 5: 22. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00022. |
| 17. | Coppola G, Di Renzo A, Ziccardi L, et al. Optical coherence tomography in Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2015, 10: 134750[2015-08-07]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134750. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134750. |
| 18. | He XF, Liu YT, Peng C, et al. Optical coherence tomography assessed retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis[J]. Int J Ophthalmol(English Edition), 2012, 5(3): 401-405. DOI: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2012.03.30. |
| 19. | Garcia-Martin E, Bambo MP, Marques ML, et al. Ganglion cell layer measurements correlate with disease severity in patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2016, 94(6): 454-459. DOI: 10.1111/aos.12977. |
| 20. | Gao L, Liu Y, Li X, et al. Abnormal retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and macula lutea in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Arch Gerontol Geriatr, 2015, 60(1): 162-167. DOI: 10.1016/j.archger.2014.10.011. |
| 21. | Mahajan D, Votruba M. Can the retina be used to diagnose and plot the progression of Alzheimer’s disease?[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2017, 95(8): 768-777. DOI: 10.1111/aos.13472. |
| 22. | Bayhan HA, Aslan Bayhan S, Celikbilek A, et al. Evaluation of the chorioretinal thickness changes in Alzheimer's disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography[J]. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2015, 43(2): 145-151. DOI: 10.1111/ceo.12386. |
| 23. | Bulut M, Yaman A, Erol MK, et al. Choroidal Thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's type dementia[J/OL]. J Ophthalmol, 2016, 2016: 7291257[2016-01-11]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7291257. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7291257. |
| 24. | Cunha JP, Proença R, Dias-Santos A, et al. Choroidal thinning: Alzheimer’s disease and aging[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2017, 8: 11-17. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2017.03.004. |
| 25. | Trebbastoni A, Marcelli M, Mallone F, et al. Attenuation of choroidal thickness in patients with Alzheimer disease: evidence from an Italian prospective study[J]. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 2017, 31(2): 128-134. DOI: 10.1097/WAD.0000000000000176. |
| 26. | Cunha JP, Moura-Coelho N, Proença RP, et al. Alzheimer's disease: a review of its visual system neuropathology. Optical coherence tomography-a potential role as a study tool in vivo[J]. Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2016, 254(11): 2079-2092. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-016-3430-y. |
| 27. | Polo V, Rodrigo MJ, Garcia-Martin E, et al. Visual dysfunction and its correlation with retinal changes in patients with Alzheimer's disease[J]. Eye (Lond), 2017, 31(7): 1034-1041. DOI: 10.1038/eye.2017.23. |
| 28. | van Wijngaarden P, Hadoux X, Alwan M, et al. Emerging ocular biomarkers of Alzheimer disease[J]. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2017, 45(1): 54-61. DOI: 10.1111/ceo.12872. |
| 29. | Lim JK, Li QX, He Z, et al. The eye as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Front Neurosci, 2016, 10: 536. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00536. |
| 30. | Hart NJ, Koronyo Y, Black KL, et al. Ocular indicators of Alzheimer’s: exploring disease in the retina[J]. Acta Neuropathol, 2016, 132(6): 767-787. DOI: 10.1007/s00401-016-1613-6. |
| 31. | Armstrong RA. Visual field defects in Alzheimer’s disease patients may reflect differential pathology in the primary visual cortex[J]. Optom Vis Sci, 1996, 73(11): 677-682. DOI: 10.1097/00006324-199611000-00001. |
| 32. | Dehabadi MH, Davis BM, Wong TK, et al. Retinal manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Neurodegener Dis Manag, 2014, 4(3): 241-252. DOI: 10.2217/nmt.14.19. |
| 33. | Tzekov R, Mullan M. Vision function abnormalities in Alzheimer disease[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 2014, 59(4): 414-433. DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2013.10.002. |
| 34. | Rodriguez-Mena D, Almarcegui C, Dolz I, et al. Application of electrophysiological tests in the study of neurological diseases with visual involvement[J]. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol, 2012, 87(10): 311-314. DOI: 10.1016/j.oftal.2012.09.001. |
| 35. | Pollock VE, Schneider LS, Chui HC, et al. Visual evoked potentials in dementia: a meta-analysis and empirical study of Alzheimer’s disease patients[J]. Biol Psychiatry, 1989, 25(8): 1003-1013. DOI: 10.1016/0006-3223(89)90288-6. |
| 36. | Holroyd S, Shepherd ML. Alzheimer’s disease: a review for the ophthalmologist[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 2001, 45(6): 516-524. DOI: 10.1016/S0039-6257(01)00193-X. |
| 37. | Katz B, Rimmer S. Ophthalmologic manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 1989, 34(1): 31-43. DOI: 10.1016/0039-6257(89)90127-6. |
| 38. | Parisi V, Restuccia R, Fattapposta F, et al. Morphological and functional retinal impairment in Alzheimer’s disease patients[J]. Clin Neurophysiol, 2001, 112(10): 1860-1867. DOI: 10.1016/S1388-2457(01)00620-4. |
| 39. | Krasodomska K, Lubiński W, Potemkowski A, et al. Pattern electroretinogram (PERG) and pattern visual evoked potential (PVEP) in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Doc Ophthalmol, 2010, 121(2): 111-121. DOI: 10.1007/s10633-010-9238-x. |
| 40. | Katz B, Rimmer S, Iragui V, et al. Abnormal pattern electroretinogram in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence for retinal ganglion cell degeneration?[J]. Ann Neurol, 1989, 26(2): 221-225. DOI: 10.1002/ana.410260207. |
| 41. | Binetti G, Cappa SF, Magni E, et al. Disorders of visual and spatial perception in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1996, 777: 221-225. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb34422.x. |
| 42. | Justino L, Kergoat MJ, Bergman H, et al. Neuroretinal function is normal in early dementia of the Alzheimer type[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 2001, 22(4): 691-695. DOI: 10.1016/S0197-4580(01)00234-2. |
| 43. | Bateman R. Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias: advances in 2014[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2015, 14(1): 4-6. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70301-1. |
| 44. | Trick GL, Trick LR, Morris P, et al. Visual field loss in senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type[J]. Neurology, 1995, 45(1): 68-74. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.45.1.68. |
| 45. | Valenti DA. Alzheimer’s disease: screening biomarkers using frequency doubling technology visual field[J/OL]. ISRN Neurol, 2013, 2013: 989583[2013-09-25]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/989583. DOI: 10.1155/2013/989583. |
| 46. | Patton N, Aslam T, MacGillivray J, et al. Retinal vascular image analysis as a potential screening tool for cerebrovascular disease[J]. J Anat, 2005, 206(4): 318-348. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00395.x. |
| 47. | Bulut M, Kurtuluş F, Gözkaya O, et al. Evaluation of optical coherence tomography angiographic findings in Alzheimer's type dementia[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 2018, 102(2): 233-237. DOI: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-310476. |
| 48. | Zhang YS, Zhou N, Knoll BM, et al. Parafoveal vessel loss and correlation between peripapillary vessel density and cognitive performance in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s Disease on optical coherence tomography angiography[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2019, 14(4): 214685[2019-04-02].https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214685. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214685. |
| 49. | Cheung CY, Ong YT, Ikram MK, et al. Microvascular network alterations in the retina of patients with Alzheimer's disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement, 2014, 10(2): 135-142. DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2013.06.009. |
| 50. | Berisha F, Feke GT, Trempe CL, et al. Retinal abnormalities in early Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2007, 48: 2285-2289. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.06-1029. |
| 51. | Feke G, Hyman B, Stern R, et al. Retinal blood flow in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2015, 1(2): 144-151. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2015.01.004. |
| 52. | Frost S, Kanagasingam Y, Sohrabi H, et al. Retinal vascular biomarkers for early detection and monitoring of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Transl Psychiatry, 2013, 3: 233. DOI: 10.1038/tp.2012.150. |
| 53. | Williams MA, McGowan AJ, Cardwell CR, et al. Retinal microvascular network attenuation in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2015, 1(2): 229-235. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2015.04.001. |
| 54. | Einarsdottir AB, Hardarson SH, Kristjansdottir JV, et al. Retinal oximetry imaging in Alzheimer's disease[J]. J Alzheimers Dis, 2016, 49(1): 79-83. DOI: 10.3233/JAD-150457. |
| 55. | Yoneda S, Hara H, Hirata A, et al. Vitreous fluid levels of beta-amyloid((1-42)) and tau in patients with retinal diseases[J]. Jpn J Ophthalmol, 2005, 49(2): 106-108. DOI: 10.1007/s10384-004-0156-x. |
| 56. | Bayer AU, Ferrari F, Erb C. High occurrence rate of glaucoma among patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Eur Neurol, 2002, 47(3): 165-168. DOI: 10.1159/000047976. |
| 57. | Bayer AU, Ferrari F. Severe progression of glaucomatous optic neuropathy in patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Eye (Lond), 2002, 16(2): 209-212. DOI: 10.1038/sj/EYE/6700034. |
| 58. | Anderson DH, Talaga KC, Rivest AJ, et al. Characterization of beta amyloid assemblies in drusen: the deposits associated with aging and age-related macular degeneration[J]. Exp Eye Res, 2004, 78(2): 243-256. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2003.10.011. |
| 59. | Algvere PV, Kvanta A, Seregard S. Drusen maculopathy: a risk factor for visual deterioration[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2016, 94(5): 427-433. DOI: 10.1111/aos.13011. |
| 60. | Dentchev T, Milam AH, Lee VM, et al. Amyloid-beta is found in drusen from some age-related macular degeneration retinas, but not in drusen from normal retinas[J]. Mol Vis, 2003, 9: 184-190. |
| 61. | Luibl V, Isas JM, Kayed R, et al. Drusen deposits associated with aging and age-related macular degeneration contain nonfibrillar amyloid oligomers[J]. J Clin Investig, 2006, 116(2): 378-385. DOI: 10.1172/JCI25843. |
| 62. | Clemons TE, Rankin MW, McBee WL, et al. Cognitive impairment in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS report no. 16[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 2006, 124(4): 537-543. DOI: 10.1001/archopht.124.4.537. |
| 63. | Klaver CC, Kliffen M, van Duijn CM, et al. Genetic association of apolipoprotein E with age-related macular degeneration[J]. Am J Hum Genet, 1998, 63(1): 200-206. DOI: 10.1086/301901. |
| 64. | Pham TQ, Kifley A, Mitchell P, et al. Relation of age-related macular degeneration and cognitive impairment in an older population[J]. Gerontology, 2006, 52(6): 353-358. DOI: 10.1159/000094984. |
| 65. | Wong TY, Klein R, Nieto FJ, et al. Is early age-related maculopathy related to cognitive function? The atherosclerosis risk in communities study[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2002, 134(6): 828-835. DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01672-0. |
| 66. | Keenan TD, Goldacre R, Goldacre MJ. Associations between age-related macular degeneration, Alzheimer disease, and dementia: record linkage study of hospital admissions[J]. JAMA Ophthalmol, 2014, 132(1): 63-68. DOI: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.5696. |
- 1. Turner RC, Lucke-Wold BP, Robson MJ, et al. Alzheimer's disease and chronic traumatic encephalopathy: distinct but possibly overlapping disease entities[J]. Brain Inj, 2016, 30(11): 1279-1292. DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2016.1193631.
- 2. Gilmore GC, Levy JA. Spatial contrast sensitivity in Alzheimer’s disease: a comparison of two methods[J]. Optom Vis Sci, 1991, 68(10): 790-794. DOI: 10.1097/00006324-199110000-00006.
- 3. Neargarder SA, Stone ER, Cronin-Golomb A, et al. The impact of acuity on performance of four clinical measures of contrast sensitivity in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 2003, 58(1): 54-62. DOI: 10.1093/geronb/58.1.P54.
- 4. Cronin-Golomb A. Vision in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Gerontologist, 1995, 35(3): 370-376. DOI: 10.1093/geront/35.3.370.
- 5. Blanks JC, Schmidt SY, Torigoe Y, et al. Retinal pathology in Alzheimer’s disease. Ⅱ. regional neuron loss and glial changes in GCL[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 1996, 17(3): 385-395. DOI: 10.1016/0197-4580(96)00009-7.
- 6. Blanks JC, Torigoe Y, Hinton DR, et al. Retinal pathology in Alzheimer’s disease.Ⅰ. ganglion cell loss in foveal/parafoveal retina[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 1996, 17(3): 377-384. DOI: 10.1016/0197-4580(96)00010-3.
- 7. Hinton DR, Sadun AA, Blanks JC, et al. Optic-nerve degeneration in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. N Engl J Med, 1986, 315(8): 485-487. DOI: 10.1056/nejm198608213150804.
- 8. Sadun AA, Bassi CJ. Optic nerve damage in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Ophthalmology, 1990, 97(1): 9-17. DOI: 10.1016/S0161-6420(90)32621-0.
- 9. Cunha LP, Lopes LC, Costa-Cunha LV, et al. Macular thickness measurements with frequency domain-OCT for quantification of retinal neural loss and its correlation with cognitive impairment in Alzheimer’s disease[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2016, 11(4): 153830[2016-04-22]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153830. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153830.
- 10. Kirbas S, Turkyilmaz K, Anlar O, et al. Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in patients with Alzheimer disease[J]. J Neuroophthalmol, 2013, 33(1): 58-61. DOI: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e318267fd5f.
- 11. Lu Y, Li Z, Zhang X, et al. Retinal nerve fiber layer structure abnormalities in early Alzheimer’s disease: evidence in optical coherence tomography[J]. Neurosci Lett, 2010, 480(1): 69-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.006.
- 12. Marziani E, Pomati S, Ramolfo P, et al. Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer and ganglion cell layer thickness in Alzheimer’s disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2013, 54(9): 5953-5958. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.13-12046.
- 13. Paquet C, Boissonnot M, Roger F, et al. Abnormal retinal thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Neurosci Lett, 2007, 420(2): 97-99. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.090.
- 14. Iseri PK, Altinas O, Tokay T, et al. Relationship between cognitive impairment and retinal morphological and visual functional abnormalities in Alzheimer disease[J]. J Neuroophthalmol, 2006, 26(1): 18-24. DOI: 10.1097/01.wno.0000204645.56873.26.
- 15. Kesler A, Vakhapova V, Korczyn AD, et al. Retinal thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 2011, 113(7): 523-526. DOI: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2011.02.014.
- 16. Kromer R, Serbecic N, Hausner L, et al. Detection of retinal nerve fiber layer defects in Alzheimer’s disease using SD-OCT[J]. Front Psychiatry, 2014, 5: 22. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00022.
- 17. Coppola G, Di Renzo A, Ziccardi L, et al. Optical coherence tomography in Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2015, 10: 134750[2015-08-07]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134750. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134750.
- 18. He XF, Liu YT, Peng C, et al. Optical coherence tomography assessed retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis[J]. Int J Ophthalmol(English Edition), 2012, 5(3): 401-405. DOI: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2012.03.30.
- 19. Garcia-Martin E, Bambo MP, Marques ML, et al. Ganglion cell layer measurements correlate with disease severity in patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2016, 94(6): 454-459. DOI: 10.1111/aos.12977.
- 20. Gao L, Liu Y, Li X, et al. Abnormal retinal nerve fiber layer thickness and macula lutea in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Arch Gerontol Geriatr, 2015, 60(1): 162-167. DOI: 10.1016/j.archger.2014.10.011.
- 21. Mahajan D, Votruba M. Can the retina be used to diagnose and plot the progression of Alzheimer’s disease?[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2017, 95(8): 768-777. DOI: 10.1111/aos.13472.
- 22. Bayhan HA, Aslan Bayhan S, Celikbilek A, et al. Evaluation of the chorioretinal thickness changes in Alzheimer's disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography[J]. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2015, 43(2): 145-151. DOI: 10.1111/ceo.12386.
- 23. Bulut M, Yaman A, Erol MK, et al. Choroidal Thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's type dementia[J/OL]. J Ophthalmol, 2016, 2016: 7291257[2016-01-11]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7291257. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7291257.
- 24. Cunha JP, Proença R, Dias-Santos A, et al. Choroidal thinning: Alzheimer’s disease and aging[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2017, 8: 11-17. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2017.03.004.
- 25. Trebbastoni A, Marcelli M, Mallone F, et al. Attenuation of choroidal thickness in patients with Alzheimer disease: evidence from an Italian prospective study[J]. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 2017, 31(2): 128-134. DOI: 10.1097/WAD.0000000000000176.
- 26. Cunha JP, Moura-Coelho N, Proença RP, et al. Alzheimer's disease: a review of its visual system neuropathology. Optical coherence tomography-a potential role as a study tool in vivo[J]. Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2016, 254(11): 2079-2092. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-016-3430-y.
- 27. Polo V, Rodrigo MJ, Garcia-Martin E, et al. Visual dysfunction and its correlation with retinal changes in patients with Alzheimer's disease[J]. Eye (Lond), 2017, 31(7): 1034-1041. DOI: 10.1038/eye.2017.23.
- 28. van Wijngaarden P, Hadoux X, Alwan M, et al. Emerging ocular biomarkers of Alzheimer disease[J]. Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 2017, 45(1): 54-61. DOI: 10.1111/ceo.12872.
- 29. Lim JK, Li QX, He Z, et al. The eye as a biomarker for Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Front Neurosci, 2016, 10: 536. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00536.
- 30. Hart NJ, Koronyo Y, Black KL, et al. Ocular indicators of Alzheimer’s: exploring disease in the retina[J]. Acta Neuropathol, 2016, 132(6): 767-787. DOI: 10.1007/s00401-016-1613-6.
- 31. Armstrong RA. Visual field defects in Alzheimer’s disease patients may reflect differential pathology in the primary visual cortex[J]. Optom Vis Sci, 1996, 73(11): 677-682. DOI: 10.1097/00006324-199611000-00001.
- 32. Dehabadi MH, Davis BM, Wong TK, et al. Retinal manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Neurodegener Dis Manag, 2014, 4(3): 241-252. DOI: 10.2217/nmt.14.19.
- 33. Tzekov R, Mullan M. Vision function abnormalities in Alzheimer disease[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 2014, 59(4): 414-433. DOI: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2013.10.002.
- 34. Rodriguez-Mena D, Almarcegui C, Dolz I, et al. Application of electrophysiological tests in the study of neurological diseases with visual involvement[J]. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol, 2012, 87(10): 311-314. DOI: 10.1016/j.oftal.2012.09.001.
- 35. Pollock VE, Schneider LS, Chui HC, et al. Visual evoked potentials in dementia: a meta-analysis and empirical study of Alzheimer’s disease patients[J]. Biol Psychiatry, 1989, 25(8): 1003-1013. DOI: 10.1016/0006-3223(89)90288-6.
- 36. Holroyd S, Shepherd ML. Alzheimer’s disease: a review for the ophthalmologist[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 2001, 45(6): 516-524. DOI: 10.1016/S0039-6257(01)00193-X.
- 37. Katz B, Rimmer S. Ophthalmologic manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Surv Ophthalmol, 1989, 34(1): 31-43. DOI: 10.1016/0039-6257(89)90127-6.
- 38. Parisi V, Restuccia R, Fattapposta F, et al. Morphological and functional retinal impairment in Alzheimer’s disease patients[J]. Clin Neurophysiol, 2001, 112(10): 1860-1867. DOI: 10.1016/S1388-2457(01)00620-4.
- 39. Krasodomska K, Lubiński W, Potemkowski A, et al. Pattern electroretinogram (PERG) and pattern visual evoked potential (PVEP) in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Doc Ophthalmol, 2010, 121(2): 111-121. DOI: 10.1007/s10633-010-9238-x.
- 40. Katz B, Rimmer S, Iragui V, et al. Abnormal pattern electroretinogram in Alzheimer’s disease: evidence for retinal ganglion cell degeneration?[J]. Ann Neurol, 1989, 26(2): 221-225. DOI: 10.1002/ana.410260207.
- 41. Binetti G, Cappa SF, Magni E, et al. Disorders of visual and spatial perception in the early stage of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1996, 777: 221-225. DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb34422.x.
- 42. Justino L, Kergoat MJ, Bergman H, et al. Neuroretinal function is normal in early dementia of the Alzheimer type[J]. Neurobiol Aging, 2001, 22(4): 691-695. DOI: 10.1016/S0197-4580(01)00234-2.
- 43. Bateman R. Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias: advances in 2014[J]. Lancet Neurol, 2015, 14(1): 4-6. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70301-1.
- 44. Trick GL, Trick LR, Morris P, et al. Visual field loss in senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type[J]. Neurology, 1995, 45(1): 68-74. DOI: 10.1212/WNL.45.1.68.
- 45. Valenti DA. Alzheimer’s disease: screening biomarkers using frequency doubling technology visual field[J/OL]. ISRN Neurol, 2013, 2013: 989583[2013-09-25]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/989583. DOI: 10.1155/2013/989583.
- 46. Patton N, Aslam T, MacGillivray J, et al. Retinal vascular image analysis as a potential screening tool for cerebrovascular disease[J]. J Anat, 2005, 206(4): 318-348. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00395.x.
- 47. Bulut M, Kurtuluş F, Gözkaya O, et al. Evaluation of optical coherence tomography angiographic findings in Alzheimer's type dementia[J]. Br J Ophthalmol, 2018, 102(2): 233-237. DOI: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-310476.
- 48. Zhang YS, Zhou N, Knoll BM, et al. Parafoveal vessel loss and correlation between peripapillary vessel density and cognitive performance in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer’s Disease on optical coherence tomography angiography[J/OL]. PLoS One, 2019, 14(4): 214685[2019-04-02].https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214685. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214685.
- 49. Cheung CY, Ong YT, Ikram MK, et al. Microvascular network alterations in the retina of patients with Alzheimer's disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement, 2014, 10(2): 135-142. DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2013.06.009.
- 50. Berisha F, Feke GT, Trempe CL, et al. Retinal abnormalities in early Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 2007, 48: 2285-2289. DOI: 10.1167/iovs.06-1029.
- 51. Feke G, Hyman B, Stern R, et al. Retinal blood flow in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2015, 1(2): 144-151. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2015.01.004.
- 52. Frost S, Kanagasingam Y, Sohrabi H, et al. Retinal vascular biomarkers for early detection and monitoring of Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Transl Psychiatry, 2013, 3: 233. DOI: 10.1038/tp.2012.150.
- 53. Williams MA, McGowan AJ, Cardwell CR, et al. Retinal microvascular network attenuation in Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Alzheimers Dement (Amst), 2015, 1(2): 229-235. DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2015.04.001.
- 54. Einarsdottir AB, Hardarson SH, Kristjansdottir JV, et al. Retinal oximetry imaging in Alzheimer's disease[J]. J Alzheimers Dis, 2016, 49(1): 79-83. DOI: 10.3233/JAD-150457.
- 55. Yoneda S, Hara H, Hirata A, et al. Vitreous fluid levels of beta-amyloid((1-42)) and tau in patients with retinal diseases[J]. Jpn J Ophthalmol, 2005, 49(2): 106-108. DOI: 10.1007/s10384-004-0156-x.
- 56. Bayer AU, Ferrari F, Erb C. High occurrence rate of glaucoma among patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Eur Neurol, 2002, 47(3): 165-168. DOI: 10.1159/000047976.
- 57. Bayer AU, Ferrari F. Severe progression of glaucomatous optic neuropathy in patients with Alzheimer’s disease[J]. Eye (Lond), 2002, 16(2): 209-212. DOI: 10.1038/sj/EYE/6700034.
- 58. Anderson DH, Talaga KC, Rivest AJ, et al. Characterization of beta amyloid assemblies in drusen: the deposits associated with aging and age-related macular degeneration[J]. Exp Eye Res, 2004, 78(2): 243-256. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2003.10.011.
- 59. Algvere PV, Kvanta A, Seregard S. Drusen maculopathy: a risk factor for visual deterioration[J]. Acta Ophthalmol, 2016, 94(5): 427-433. DOI: 10.1111/aos.13011.
- 60. Dentchev T, Milam AH, Lee VM, et al. Amyloid-beta is found in drusen from some age-related macular degeneration retinas, but not in drusen from normal retinas[J]. Mol Vis, 2003, 9: 184-190.
- 61. Luibl V, Isas JM, Kayed R, et al. Drusen deposits associated with aging and age-related macular degeneration contain nonfibrillar amyloid oligomers[J]. J Clin Investig, 2006, 116(2): 378-385. DOI: 10.1172/JCI25843.
- 62. Clemons TE, Rankin MW, McBee WL, et al. Cognitive impairment in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS report no. 16[J]. Arch Ophthalmol, 2006, 124(4): 537-543. DOI: 10.1001/archopht.124.4.537.
- 63. Klaver CC, Kliffen M, van Duijn CM, et al. Genetic association of apolipoprotein E with age-related macular degeneration[J]. Am J Hum Genet, 1998, 63(1): 200-206. DOI: 10.1086/301901.
- 64. Pham TQ, Kifley A, Mitchell P, et al. Relation of age-related macular degeneration and cognitive impairment in an older population[J]. Gerontology, 2006, 52(6): 353-358. DOI: 10.1159/000094984.
- 65. Wong TY, Klein R, Nieto FJ, et al. Is early age-related maculopathy related to cognitive function? The atherosclerosis risk in communities study[J]. Am J Ophthalmol, 2002, 134(6): 828-835. DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9394(02)01672-0.
- 66. Keenan TD, Goldacre R, Goldacre MJ. Associations between age-related macular degeneration, Alzheimer disease, and dementia: record linkage study of hospital admissions[J]. JAMA Ophthalmol, 2014, 132(1): 63-68. DOI: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.5696.