Research progress on early pulmonary rehabilitation of acute exacerbation or critical illness_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

ZHAO Hongmei ^1,2,3 ,  WANG Chen ^2,4

1. Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, P. R. China;
2. Center of Respiratory Medicine, China-Japan Friendship Hospital; National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases; Beijing 100029, P. R. China;
3. Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100191, P. R. China;
4. Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

WANG Chen, Email: wangchen@pumc.edu.cn

Keywords：

Pulmonary rehabilitation; Acute exacerbation; Critical illness

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.201901039

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Pulmonary rehabilitation is a comprehensive intervention based on a thorough patient assessment followed by patient-tailored therapies, which include, but are not limited to, exercise training, education, and behavior change, designed to improve the physical and psychological condition of people with chronic respiratory disease and to promote the long-term adherence of health-enhancing behaviors. It has been proven beneficial in reducing dyspnea and improving functional capacity and quality of life for patients with stable chronic respiratory disease. However, recent randomized clinical trials reported conflicting results on the timing of intervention, protocol and effectiveness of acute exacerbation or intensive care unit pulmonary rehabilitation to improve patient outcomes. We should find a balance between " dynamic” and " static” to maximize the benefit of patients from early pulmonary rehabilitation.

Citation： ZHAO Hongmei, WANG Chen. Research progress on early pulmonary rehabilitation of acute exacerbation or critical illness. West China Medical Journal, 2019, 34(1): 1-6. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.201901039 Copy

1.	World Health Organization. Rehabilitation 2030: a call for action. (2018-09-27)[2019-01-09]. https://www.who.int/disabilities/care/Rehab2030MeetingReport2.pdf.
2.	Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, et al. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA, 2014, 311(13): 1308-1316.
3.	Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: report from a stakeholders’ conference. Crit Care Med, 2012, 40(2): 502-509.
4.	Kress JP, Hall JB. ICU-acquired weakness and recovery from critical illness. N Engl J Med, 2014, 370(17): 1626-1635.
5.	Spruit MA, Singh SJ, Garvey C, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: key concepts and advances in pulmonary rehabilitation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2013, 188(8): e13-e64.
6.	Bolton CE, Bevan-Smith EF, Blakey JD, et al. British Thoracic Society guideline on pulmonary rehabilitation in adults. Thorax, 2013, 68(Suppl 2): ii1-ii30.
7.	McCarthy B, Casey D, Devane D, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2015, 2: CD003793.
8.	Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (2019 Report). (2018-11-14)[2019-01-09]. https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/GOLD-2019-v1.7-FINAL-14Nov2018-WMS.pdf.
9.	National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management. (2018-12-05)[2019-01-09]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng115.
10.	Yang IA, Brown JL, George J, et al. COPD-X Australian and New Zealand guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2017 update. Med J Aust, 2017, 20, 207(10): 436-442.
11.	Greening NJ, Williams JE, Hussain SF, et al. An early rehabilitation intervention to enhance recovery during hospital admission for an exacerbation of chronic respiratory disease: randomized controlled trial. BMJ, 2014, 349: g4315.
12.	Wedzicha JA Ers Co-Chair, Miravitlles M, Hurst JR, et al. Management of COPD exacerbations: a European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guideline. Eur Respir J, 2017, 49(3): 1600791.
13.	Spruit MA, Singh SJ, Rochester CL, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for patients with COPD during and after an exacerbation-related hospitalisation: back to the future?. Eur Respir J, 2018, 51(1): 1701312.
14.	Perera PN, Armstrong EP, Sherrill DL, et al. Acute exacerbations of COPD in the United States: inpatient burden and predictors of costs and mortality. COPD, 2012, 9(2): 131-141.
15.	National COPD Audit Programme. COPD: Who cares when it matters most? National Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) audit programme: outcomes from the clinical audit of COPD exacerbations admitted to acute units in England 2014. National supplementary report February 2017. (2018-04-19)[2019-01-09]. https://www.hqip.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/ 2018/04/Chronic-Obstructive-Pulmonary-Disease-Secondary-care-clinical-audit-2017-Working-together.pdf.
16.	Wang C, Xu J, Yang L, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in China (the China Pulmonary Health [CPH] study): a national cross-sectional study. Lancet, 2018, 391(10131): 1706-1717.
17.	Kortebein P, Ferrando A, Lombeida J, et al. Effect of 10 days of bed rest on skeletal muscle in healthy older adults. JAMA, 2007, 297(16): 1772-1774.
18.	Sin DD, Jones RL, Mannino DM, et al. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second and physical activity in the general population. Am J Med, 2004, 117(4): 270-273.
19.	Montes de Oca M, Rassulo J, Celli BR. Respiratory muscle and cardiopulmonary function during exercise in very severe COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1996, 154(5): 1284-1289.
20.	Schols AM, Broekhuizen R, Weling- Scheepers CA, et al. Body composition and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Clin Nutr, 2005, 82(1): 53-59.
21.	Marquis K, Debigaré R, Lacasse Y, et al. Midthigh muscle cross-sectional area is a better predictor of mortality than body mass index in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2002, 166(6): 809-813.
22.	Puhan MA, Gimeno-Santos E, Cates CJ, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation following exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 12: CD005305.
23.	Matsui H, Jo T, Fushimi K, et al. Outcomes after early and delayed rehabilitation for exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a nationwide retrospective cohort study in Japan. Respir Res, 2017, 18(1): 68.
24.	Spruit MA, Pitta F, Garvey C, et al. Differences in content and organisational aspects of pulmonary rehabilitation programmes. Eur Respir J, 2014, 43(5): 1326-1337.
25.	van Ranst D, Stoop WA, Meijer JW, et al. Reduction of exacerbation frequency in patients with COPD after participation in a comprehensive pulmonary rehabilitation program. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis, 2014, 9: 1059-1067.
26.	Torres-Sánchez I, Valenza MC, Cabrera-Martos I, et al. Effects of an exercise intervention in frail older patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalized due to an exacerbation: a randomized controlled trial. COPD, 2017, 14(1): 37-42.
27.	Borges RC, Carvalho CR. Impact of resistance training in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients during periods of acute exacerbation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 2014, 95(9): 1638-1645.
28.	Giavedoni S, Deans A, McCaughey P, et al. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation prevents muscle function deterioration in exacerbated COPD: a pilot study. Respir Med, 2012, 106(10): 1429-1434.
29.	Greulich T, Nell C, Koepke J, et al. Benefits of whole body vibration training in patients hospitalised for COPD exacerbations-a randomized clinical trial. BMC Pulm Med, 2014, 14: 60.
30.	Raghu G, Collard HR, Egan JJ, et al. An official ATS/ERS/JRS/ ALAT statement: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and management. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 183(6): 788-824.
31.	National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diagnosis and management of suspected idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. NICE clinical guideline, No.163. London, UK: Royal College of Physicians, 2013.
32.	Bolton CE, Bevan-Smith EF, Blakey JD, et al. British thoracic society guideline on pulmonary rehabilitation in adults: accredited by NICE. Thorax, 2013, 68(Suppl 2): ii1-ii30.
33.	Dowman L, Hill CJ, Holland AE, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for interstitial lung disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014(10): CD006322.
34.	Ryerson CJ, Cayou C, Topp F, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation improves long-term outcomes in interstitial lung disease: a prospective cohort study. Respir Med, 2014, 108(1): 203-210.
35.	Deniz S, Şahin H, Yalnız E. Does the severity of interstitial lung disease affect the gains from pulmonary rehabilitation?. Clin Respir J, 2018, 12(6): 2141-2150.
36.	Wallaert B, Masson N, Le Rouzic O, et al. Effects of pulmonary rehabilitation on daily life physical activity of fibrotic idiopathic interstitial pneumonia patients. ERJ Open Res, 2018, 4(2): 00167-2017.
37.	Bajwah S, Ross JR, Peacock JL, et al. Interventions to improve symptoms and quality of life of patients with fibrotic interstitial lung disease: a systematic review of the literature. Thorax, 2013, 68(9): 867-879.
38.	Hoeper MM, Huscher D, Ghofrani HA, et al. Elderly patients diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension: results from the COMPERA registry. Int J Cardiol, 2013, 168(2): 871-880.
39.	Grünig E, Eichstaedt C, Barberà JA, et al. ERS statement on exercise training and rehabilitation in patients with severe chronic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J, 2018: 1800332.
40.	Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail, 2016, 18(8): 891-975.
41.	Mereles D, Ehlken N, Kreuscher S, et al. Exercise and respiratory training improve exercise capacity and quality of life in patients with severe chronic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation, 2006, 114(14): 1482-1489.
42.	Ley S, Fink C, Risse F, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging to assess the effect of exercise training on pulmonary perfusion and blood flow in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Eur Radiol, 2013, 23(2): 324-331.
43.	de Man FS, Handoko ML, Groepenhoff H, et al. Effects of exercise training in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J, 2009, 34(3): 669-675.
44.	Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA, 2011, 306(14): 1574-1581.
45.	Girard TD, Jackson JC, Pandharipande PP, et al. Delirium as a predictor of long-term cognitive impairment in survivors of critical illness. Crit Care Med, 2010, 38(7): 1513-1520.
46.	Latronico N, Bolton CF. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis. Lancet Neurol, 2011, 10(10): 931-941.
47.	Castro-Avila AC, Serón P, Fan E, et al. Effect of early rehabilitation during intensive care unit stay on functional status: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2015, 10(7): e0130722.
48.	Cameron S, Ball I, Cepinskas G, et al. Early mobilization in the critical care unit: a review of adult and pediatric literature. J Crit Care, 2015, 30(4): 664-672.
49.	Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(9): e825-e873.
50.	Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med, 2003, 348(8): 683-693.
51.	Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matté A, et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(14): 1293-1304.
52.	Schaller SJ, Anstey M, Blobner M, et al. Early, goal-directed mobilisation in the surgical intensive care unit: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2016, 388(10052): 1377-1388.
53.	Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2009, 30, 373(9678): 1874-1882.
54.	Hodgson CL, Stiller K, Needham DM, et al. Expert consensus and recommendations on safety criteria for active mobilization of mechanically ventilated critically ill adults. Crit Care, 2014, 18(9): 658.
55.	Roeseler J, Sottiaux T, Lemiale V, et al. Prise en charge de la mobilisation précoce en réanimation, chez l’adulte et l’enfant (électrostimulation incluse) management of early mobilization (including electrostimulation) in adult and pediatric patients in the intensive care unit. Réanimation, 2013, 22(2): 207-218.
56.	Ko Y, Cho YH, Park YH, et al. Feasibility and safety of early physical therapy and active mobilization for patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. ASAIO J, 2015, 61(5): 564-568.
57.	Hickmann CE, Castanares-Zapatero D, Bialais E, et al. Teamwork enables high level of early mobilization in critically ill patients. Ann Intensive Care, 2016, 6(1): 80.
58.	Fossat G, Baudin F, Courtes L, et al. Effect of in-bed leg cycling and electrical stimulation of the quadriceps on global muscle strength in critically ill adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 320(4): 368-378.
59.	Wright SE, Thomas K, Watson G, et al. Intensive versus standard physical rehabilitation therapy in the critically ill (EPICC): a multicentre, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial. Thorax, 2018, 73(3): 213-221.
60.	Dubb R, Nydahl P, Hermes C, et al. Barriers and strategies for early mobilization of patients in intensive care units. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2016, 13(5): 724-730.

1. World Health Organization. Rehabilitation 2030: a call for action. (2018-09-27)[2019-01-09]. https://www.who.int/disabilities/care/Rehab2030MeetingReport2.pdf.
2. Kaukonen KM, Bailey M, Suzuki S, et al. Mortality related to severe sepsis and septic shock among critically ill patients in Australia and New Zealand, 2000-2012. JAMA, 2014, 311(13): 1308-1316.
3. Needham DM, Davidson J, Cohen H, et al. Improving long-term outcomes after discharge from intensive care unit: report from a stakeholders’ conference. Crit Care Med, 2012, 40(2): 502-509.
4. Kress JP, Hall JB. ICU-acquired weakness and recovery from critical illness. N Engl J Med, 2014, 370(17): 1626-1635.
5. Spruit MA, Singh SJ, Garvey C, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: key concepts and advances in pulmonary rehabilitation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2013, 188(8): e13-e64.
6. Bolton CE, Bevan-Smith EF, Blakey JD, et al. British Thoracic Society guideline on pulmonary rehabilitation in adults. Thorax, 2013, 68(Suppl 2): ii1-ii30.
7. McCarthy B, Casey D, Devane D, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2015, 2: CD003793.
8. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (2019 Report). (2018-11-14)[2019-01-09]. https://goldcopd.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/GOLD-2019-v1.7-FINAL-14Nov2018-WMS.pdf.
9. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management. (2018-12-05)[2019-01-09]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng115.
10. Yang IA, Brown JL, George J, et al. COPD-X Australian and New Zealand guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: 2017 update. Med J Aust, 2017, 20, 207(10): 436-442.
11. Greening NJ, Williams JE, Hussain SF, et al. An early rehabilitation intervention to enhance recovery during hospital admission for an exacerbation of chronic respiratory disease: randomized controlled trial. BMJ, 2014, 349: g4315.
12. Wedzicha JA Ers Co-Chair, Miravitlles M, Hurst JR, et al. Management of COPD exacerbations: a European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society guideline. Eur Respir J, 2017, 49(3): 1600791.
13. Spruit MA, Singh SJ, Rochester CL, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for patients with COPD during and after an exacerbation-related hospitalisation: back to the future?. Eur Respir J, 2018, 51(1): 1701312.
14. Perera PN, Armstrong EP, Sherrill DL, et al. Acute exacerbations of COPD in the United States: inpatient burden and predictors of costs and mortality. COPD, 2012, 9(2): 131-141.
15. National COPD Audit Programme. COPD: Who cares when it matters most? National Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) audit programme: outcomes from the clinical audit of COPD exacerbations admitted to acute units in England 2014. National supplementary report February 2017. (2018-04-19)[2019-01-09]. https://www.hqip.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/ 2018/04/Chronic-Obstructive-Pulmonary-Disease-Secondary-care-clinical-audit-2017-Working-together.pdf.
16. Wang C, Xu J, Yang L, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in China (the China Pulmonary Health [CPH] study): a national cross-sectional study. Lancet, 2018, 391(10131): 1706-1717.
17. Kortebein P, Ferrando A, Lombeida J, et al. Effect of 10 days of bed rest on skeletal muscle in healthy older adults. JAMA, 2007, 297(16): 1772-1774.
18. Sin DD, Jones RL, Mannino DM, et al. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second and physical activity in the general population. Am J Med, 2004, 117(4): 270-273.
19. Montes de Oca M, Rassulo J, Celli BR. Respiratory muscle and cardiopulmonary function during exercise in very severe COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1996, 154(5): 1284-1289.
20. Schols AM, Broekhuizen R, Weling- Scheepers CA, et al. Body composition and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Clin Nutr, 2005, 82(1): 53-59.
21. Marquis K, Debigaré R, Lacasse Y, et al. Midthigh muscle cross-sectional area is a better predictor of mortality than body mass index in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2002, 166(6): 809-813.
22. Puhan MA, Gimeno-Santos E, Cates CJ, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation following exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 12: CD005305.
23. Matsui H, Jo T, Fushimi K, et al. Outcomes after early and delayed rehabilitation for exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a nationwide retrospective cohort study in Japan. Respir Res, 2017, 18(1): 68.
24. Spruit MA, Pitta F, Garvey C, et al. Differences in content and organisational aspects of pulmonary rehabilitation programmes. Eur Respir J, 2014, 43(5): 1326-1337.
25. van Ranst D, Stoop WA, Meijer JW, et al. Reduction of exacerbation frequency in patients with COPD after participation in a comprehensive pulmonary rehabilitation program. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis, 2014, 9: 1059-1067.
26. Torres-Sánchez I, Valenza MC, Cabrera-Martos I, et al. Effects of an exercise intervention in frail older patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalized due to an exacerbation: a randomized controlled trial. COPD, 2017, 14(1): 37-42.
27. Borges RC, Carvalho CR. Impact of resistance training in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients during periods of acute exacerbation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 2014, 95(9): 1638-1645.
28. Giavedoni S, Deans A, McCaughey P, et al. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation prevents muscle function deterioration in exacerbated COPD: a pilot study. Respir Med, 2012, 106(10): 1429-1434.
29. Greulich T, Nell C, Koepke J, et al. Benefits of whole body vibration training in patients hospitalised for COPD exacerbations-a randomized clinical trial. BMC Pulm Med, 2014, 14: 60.
30. Raghu G, Collard HR, Egan JJ, et al. An official ATS/ERS/JRS/ ALAT statement: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: evidence-based guidelines for diagnosis and management. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 183(6): 788-824.
31. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diagnosis and management of suspected idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. NICE clinical guideline, No.163. London, UK: Royal College of Physicians, 2013.
32. Bolton CE, Bevan-Smith EF, Blakey JD, et al. British thoracic society guideline on pulmonary rehabilitation in adults: accredited by NICE. Thorax, 2013, 68(Suppl 2): ii1-ii30.
33. Dowman L, Hill CJ, Holland AE, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation for interstitial lung disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014(10): CD006322.
34. Ryerson CJ, Cayou C, Topp F, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation improves long-term outcomes in interstitial lung disease: a prospective cohort study. Respir Med, 2014, 108(1): 203-210.
35. Deniz S, Şahin H, Yalnız E. Does the severity of interstitial lung disease affect the gains from pulmonary rehabilitation?. Clin Respir J, 2018, 12(6): 2141-2150.
36. Wallaert B, Masson N, Le Rouzic O, et al. Effects of pulmonary rehabilitation on daily life physical activity of fibrotic idiopathic interstitial pneumonia patients. ERJ Open Res, 2018, 4(2): 00167-2017.
37. Bajwah S, Ross JR, Peacock JL, et al. Interventions to improve symptoms and quality of life of patients with fibrotic interstitial lung disease: a systematic review of the literature. Thorax, 2013, 68(9): 867-879.
38. Hoeper MM, Huscher D, Ghofrani HA, et al. Elderly patients diagnosed with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension: results from the COMPERA registry. Int J Cardiol, 2013, 168(2): 871-880.
39. Grünig E, Eichstaedt C, Barberà JA, et al. ERS statement on exercise training and rehabilitation in patients with severe chronic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J, 2018: 1800332.
40. Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail, 2016, 18(8): 891-975.
41. Mereles D, Ehlken N, Kreuscher S, et al. Exercise and respiratory training improve exercise capacity and quality of life in patients with severe chronic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation, 2006, 114(14): 1482-1489.
42. Ley S, Fink C, Risse F, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging to assess the effect of exercise training on pulmonary perfusion and blood flow in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Eur Radiol, 2013, 23(2): 324-331.
43. de Man FS, Handoko ML, Groepenhoff H, et al. Effects of exercise training in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Eur Respir J, 2009, 34(3): 669-675.
44. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA, 2011, 306(14): 1574-1581.
45. Girard TD, Jackson JC, Pandharipande PP, et al. Delirium as a predictor of long-term cognitive impairment in survivors of critical illness. Crit Care Med, 2010, 38(7): 1513-1520.
46. Latronico N, Bolton CF. Critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy: a major cause of muscle weakness and paralysis. Lancet Neurol, 2011, 10(10): 931-941.
47. Castro-Avila AC, Serón P, Fan E, et al. Effect of early rehabilitation during intensive care unit stay on functional status: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2015, 10(7): e0130722.
48. Cameron S, Ball I, Cepinskas G, et al. Early mobilization in the critical care unit: a review of adult and pediatric literature. J Crit Care, 2015, 30(4): 664-672.
49. Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(9): e825-e873.
50. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med, 2003, 348(8): 683-693.
51. Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matté A, et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(14): 1293-1304.
52. Schaller SJ, Anstey M, Blobner M, et al. Early, goal-directed mobilisation in the surgical intensive care unit: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2016, 388(10052): 1377-1388.
53. Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2009, 30, 373(9678): 1874-1882.
54. Hodgson CL, Stiller K, Needham DM, et al. Expert consensus and recommendations on safety criteria for active mobilization of mechanically ventilated critically ill adults. Crit Care, 2014, 18(9): 658.
55. Roeseler J, Sottiaux T, Lemiale V, et al. Prise en charge de la mobilisation précoce en réanimation, chez l’adulte et l’enfant (électrostimulation incluse) management of early mobilization (including electrostimulation) in adult and pediatric patients in the intensive care unit. Réanimation, 2013, 22(2): 207-218.
56. Ko Y, Cho YH, Park YH, et al. Feasibility and safety of early physical therapy and active mobilization for patients on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. ASAIO J, 2015, 61(5): 564-568.
57. Hickmann CE, Castanares-Zapatero D, Bialais E, et al. Teamwork enables high level of early mobilization in critically ill patients. Ann Intensive Care, 2016, 6(1): 80.
58. Fossat G, Baudin F, Courtes L, et al. Effect of in-bed leg cycling and electrical stimulation of the quadriceps on global muscle strength in critically ill adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 320(4): 368-378.
59. Wright SE, Thomas K, Watson G, et al. Intensive versus standard physical rehabilitation therapy in the critically ill (EPICC): a multicentre, parallel-group, randomised controlled trial. Thorax, 2018, 73(3): 213-221.
60. Dubb R, Nydahl P, Hermes C, et al. Barriers and strategies for early mobilization of patients in intensive care units. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2016, 13(5): 724-730.

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