Research progress on the related mechanisms of facial complex regional pain syndrome_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

LIN Gewei , QU Fuling , XU Lin , LIU Wei ,  LIU Zhongliang

Department of Rehabilitation, the Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130041, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

LIU Zhongliang, Email: lzltim@163.com

Keywords：

Complex regional pain syndrome; face; trigeminal nerve; hemisensory disturbances

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202107224

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Facial complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a CRPS that occurs around the periorbital and/or orofacial region, showing regional chronic pain accompanied by motor and autonomic nervous dysfunction. At present, the pathogenesis of CRPS is not clear, which may include inflammatory reaction, sympathetic nerve, spinal cord, supraspinal and other mechanisms. It is related to the hemisensory disturbances of CRPS, and closely associated with facial allodynia and migraine with trigeminal nerve. This article reviews the possible mechanisms of facial CRPS and connects the limb pain with facial pain, in order to provide some reference for the study of the pathogenesis of CRPS.

Citation： LIN Gewei, QU Fuling, XU Lin, LIU Wei, LIU Zhongliang. Research progress on the related mechanisms of facial complex regional pain syndrome. West China Medical Journal, 2022, 37(5): 776-782. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202107224 Copy

1.	de Mos M, de Bruijn AG, Huygen FJ, et al. The incidence of complex regional pain syndrome: a population-based study. Pain, 2007, 129(1/2): 12-20.
2.	Bingham JA. Causalgia of the face; two cases successfully treated by sympathectomy. Br Med J, 1947, 1(4509): 804.
3.	Straube S, Derry S, Moore RA, et al. Cervico-thoracic or lumbar sympathectomy for neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013, 2013(9): CD002918.
4.	Cutts S, Gangoo S, Srinivasan SH, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: an evolving perspective. Postgrad Med J, 2021, 97(1146): 250-255.
5.	Halicka M, Vittersø AD, Proulx MJ, et al. Neuropsychological changes in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Behav Neurol, 2020, 2020: 4561831.
6.	Harden RN, Oaklander AL, Burton AW, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: practical diagnostic and treatment guidelines, 4th edition. Pain Med, 2013, 14(2): 180-229.
7.	Dimova V, Herrnberger MS, Escolano-Lozano F, et al. Clinical phenotypes and classification algorithm for complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology, 2020, 94(4): e357-e367.
8.	Giri S, Nixdorf D. Sympathetically maintained pain presenting first as temporomandibular disorder, then as parotid dysfunction. Tex Dent J, 2007, 124(8): 748-752.
9.	Theophanous C, Jacobs DS, Hamrah P. Corneal neuralgia after LASIK. Optom Vis Sci, 2015, 92(9): e233-e240.
10.	Sakamoto E, Shiiba S, Noma N, et al. A possible case of complex regional pain syndrome in the orofacial region. Pain Med, 2010, 11(2): 274-280.
11.	Veldman PH, Jacobs PB. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the head: case report and discussion of diagnostic criteria. J Trauma, 1994, 36(1): 119-121.
12.	Teeple E, Ferrer EB, Ghia JN, et al. Pourfour Du Petit syndrome-hypersympathetic dysfunctional state following a direct non-penetrating injury to the cervical sympathetic chain and brachial plexus. Anesthesiology, 1981, 55(5): 591-592.
13.	Figuerola M, Bruera O, Leston J. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face: an unusual cause of facial pain. Headache Quarterly, 2000, 11(2): 135-137.
14.	Goenka A, Aziz M, Riley P, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome involving the face following snowball injury. Eur J Pediatr, 2014, 173(3): 397-400.
15.	Parkitny L, Wand BM, Graham C, et al. Interdisciplinary management of complex regional pain syndrome of the face. Phys Ther, 2016, 96(7): 1067-1073.
16.	González-Cantero Á, Sánchez-Moya AI, Pérez-Hortet C, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome of the face in a child. Int J Dermatol, 2018, 57(12): 1502-1503.
17.	Thapa D, Ahuja V. Complex regional pain syndrome-Ⅰ following eye injury. Indian J Anaesth, 2012, 56(6): 596-597.
18.	Morimoto Y, Kamikawa K, Shirakawa J, et al. A case of reflex sympathetic dystrophy following a retinous surgery. Masui, 1997, 46(4): 549-551.
19.	Hanowell ST, Kennedy SF. Phantom tongue pain and causalgia: case presentation and treatment. Anesth Analg, 1979, 58(5): 436-438.
20.	Jaeger B, Singer E, Kroening R. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face. Report of two cases and a review of the literature. Arch Neurol, 1986, 43(7): 693-695.
21.	Khoury R, Kennedy SF, Macnamara TE. Facial causalgia: report of case. J Oral Surg, 1980, 38(10): 782-783.
22.	Saxen MA, Campbell RL. An unusual case of sympathetically maintained facial pain complicated by telangiectasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod, 1995, 79(4): 455-458.
23.	Nixdorf DR, Sobieh R, Gierthmühlen J. Using an n-of-1 trial to assist in clinical decision making for patients with orofacial pain. J Am Dent Assoc, 2012, 143(3): 259-261.
24.	Heir GM, Nasri-Heir C, Thomas D, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome following trigeminal nerve injury: report of 2 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol, 2012, 114(6): 733-739.
25.	Lee YH, Lee KM, Kim HG, et al. Orofacial complex regional pain syndrome: pathophysiologic mechanisms and functional MRI. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol, 2017, 124(2): e164-e170.
26.	Kalladka M, Alhasan H, Morubagal N, et al. Orofacial complex regional pain syndrome. J Oral Sci, 2020, 62(4): 455-457.
27.	Arden RL, Bahu SJ, Zuazu MA, et al. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face: current treatment recommendations. Laryngoscope, 1998, 108(3): 437-442.
28.	Arjmand P, Azizi B, Bal M, et al. Periorbital complex regional pain syndrome. Can J Ophthalmol, 2017, 52(2): e49-e52.
29.	Cook A, Ghanavatian S, Jowza M. Spontaneous spread of limb complex regional pain syndrome to the ipsilateral face with ultimate corneal abrasion: a case report. A A Pract, 2020, 14(10): e01301.
30.	Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 2009, 139(2): 267-284.
31.	Zhang H, Li F, Li WW, et al. The inflammasome as a target for pain therapy. Br J Anaesth, 2016, 117(6): 693-707.
32.	Bharwani KD, Dik WA, Dirckx M, et al. Highlighting the role of biomarkers of inflammation in the diagnosis and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Diagn Ther, 2019, 23(5): 615-626.
33.	Ji RR, Nackley A, Huh Y, et al. Neuroinflammation and central sensitization in chronic and widespread pain. Anesthesiology, 2018, 129(2): 343-366.
34.	Theofilopoulos AN, Gonzalez-Quintial R, Lawson BR, et al. Sensors of the innate immune system: their link to rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol, 2010, 6(3): 146-156.
35.	David Clark J, Tawfik VL, Tajerian M, et al. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune contributions to complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Pain, 2018, 14: 1744806918799127.
36.	Ren K, Torres R. Role of interleukin-1beta during pain and inflammation. Brain Res Rev, 2009, 60(1): 57-64.
37.	Li WW, Guo TZ, Liang D, et al. The NALP1 inflammasome controls cytokine production and nociception in a rat fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain, 2009, 147(1/2/3): 277-286.
38.	Chen RX, Yin CY, Hu QM, et al. Expression profiling of spinal cord dorsal Horn in a rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type-Ⅰ uncovers potential mechanisms mediating pain and neuroinflammation responses. J Neuroinflammation, 2020, 17(1): 162.
39.	He W, Long T, Pan Q, et al. Microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation mediates IL-1β release and contributes to central sensitization in a recurrent nitroglycerin-induced migraine model. J Neuroinflammation, 2019, 16(1): 78.
40.	Aral K, Milward MR, Kapila Y, et al. Inflammasomes and their regulation in periodontal disease: a review. J Periodontal Res, 2020, 55(4): 473-487.
41.	Leis S, Weber M, Isselmann A, et al. Substance-P-induced protein extravasation is bilaterally increased in complex regional pain syndrome. Exp Neurol, 2003, 183(1): 197-204.
42.	Peterlin BL, Rosso AL, Nair S, et al. Migraine may be a risk factor for the development of complex regional pain syndrome. Cephalalgia, 2010, 30(2): 214-223.
43.	Woldeamanuel YW, Cooley C, Foley-Saldena K, et al. Migraine and complex regional pain syndrome: a case-referent clinical study. Biomed Res Int, 2017, 2017: 5714673.
44.	Strupf M, Fraunberger B, Messlinger K, et al. Cyclic changes in sensations to painful stimuli in migraine patients. Cephalalgia, 2019, 39(5): 585-596.
45.	Matsuda M, Huh Y, Ji RR. Roles of inflammation, neurogenic inflammation, and neuroinflammation in pain. J Anesth, 2019, 33(1): 131-139.
46.	Wei T, Guo TZ, Li WW, et al. Acute versus chronic phase mechanisms in a rat model of CRPS. J Neuroinflammation, 2016, 13(1): 14.
47.	Shinoda M, Kubo A, Hayashi Y, et al. Peripheral and central mechanisms of persistent orofacial pain. Front Neurosci, 2019, 13: 1227.
48.	Fakih D, Zhao Z, Nicolle P, et al. Chronic dry eye induced corneal hypersensitivity, neuroinflammatory responses, and synaptic plasticity in the mouse trigeminal brainstem. J Neuroinflammation, 2019, 16(1): 268.
49.	Yao G, Man YH, Li AR, et al. NO up-regulates migraine-related CGRP via activation of an Akt/GSK-3β/NF-κB signaling cascade in trigeminal ganglion neurons. Aging (Albany NY), 2020, 12(7): 6370-6384.
50.	Jiang BC, Zhang J, Wu B, et al. G protein-coupled receptor GPR151 is involved in trigeminal neuropathic pain through the induction of Gβγ/extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mediated neuroinflammation in the trigeminal ganglion. Pain, 2021, 162(5): 1434-1448.
51.	Knudsen LF, Terkelsen AJ, Drummond PD, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: a focus on the autonomic nervous system. Clin Auton Res, 2019, 29(4): 457-467.
52.	Drummond PD, Morellini N, Finch PM, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: intradermal injection of phenylephrine evokes pain and hyperalgesia in a subgroup of patients with upregulated α1-adrenoceptors on dermal nerves. Pain, 2018, 159(11): 2296-2305.
53.	Drummond ES, Maker G, Birklein F, et al. Topical prazosin attenuates sensitivity to tactile stimuli in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Eur J Pain, 2016, 20(6): 926-935.
54.	Gorodkin R, Herrick AL, Murray AK. Microvascular response in patients with complex regional pain syndrome as measured by laser Doppler imaging. Microcirculation, 2016, 23(5): 379-383.
55.	Poudel A, Asahina M, Fujinuma Y, et al. Skin sympathetic function in complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Clin Auton Res, 2015, 25(6): 367-371.
56.	Yvon A, Faroni A, Reid AJ, et al. Selective fiber degeneration in the peripheral nerve of a patient with severe complex regional pain syndrome. Front Neurosci, 2018, 12: 207.
57.	Rasmussen VF, Karlsson P, Drummond PD, et al. Bilaterally reduced intraepidermal nerve fiber density in unilateral CRPS-I. Pain Med, 2018, 19(10): 2021-2030.
58.	Oaklander AL, Rissmiller JG, Gelman LB, et al. Evidence of focal small-fiber axonal degeneration in complex regional pain syndrome-Ⅰ (reflex sympathetic dystrophy). Pain, 2006, 120(3): 235-243.
59.	Valle LD, Schwartzman RJ, Alexander G. Spinal cord histopathological alterations in a patient with longstanding complex regional pain syndrome. Brain Behav Immun, 2009, 23(1): 85-91.
60.	van Rijn MA, Marinus J, Putter H, et al. Spreading of complex regional pain syndrome: not a random process. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2011, 118(9): 1301-1309.
61.	Knudsen L, Finch PM, Drummond PD. The specificity and mechanisms of hemilateral sensory disturbances in complex regional pain syndrome. J Pain, 2011, 12(9): 985-990.
62.	Drummond PD, Finch PM, Birklein F, et al. Hemisensory disturbances in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Pain, 2018, 159(9): 1824-1832.
63.	Drummond PD, Vo L, Finch PM. The source of hemisensory disturbances in complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain, 2021, 37(2): 79-85.
64.	Drummond PD, Finch PM. Photophobia in complex regional pain syndrome: visual discomfort is greater on the affected than unaffected side. Pain, 2021, 162(4): 1233-1240.
65.	Bianchi Marzoli S, Criscuoli A. Unilateral recurrent periorbital pain: the role of the neuro-ophthalmologist. Neurol Sci, 2019, 40(Suppl 1): 115-121.
66.	Jeremic-Knezevic M, Knezevic A, Boban N, et al. Correlation of somatization, depression, and chronic pain with clinical findings of the temporomandibular disorders in asymptomatic women. Cranio, 2021, 39(1): 17-23.
67.	Fan W, Zhu X, He Y, et al. Peripheral sympathetic mechanisms in orofacial pain. J Pain Res, 2018, 11: 2425-2431.
68.	Ananthan S, Benoliel R. Chronic orofacial pain. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2020, 127(4): 575-588.
69.	Ramachandran R. Neurogenic inflammation and its role in migraine. Semin Immunopathol, 2018, 40(3): 301-314.

1. de Mos M, de Bruijn AG, Huygen FJ, et al. The incidence of complex regional pain syndrome: a population-based study. Pain, 2007, 129(1/2): 12-20.
2. Bingham JA. Causalgia of the face; two cases successfully treated by sympathectomy. Br Med J, 1947, 1(4509): 804.
3. Straube S, Derry S, Moore RA, et al. Cervico-thoracic or lumbar sympathectomy for neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013, 2013(9): CD002918.
4. Cutts S, Gangoo S, Srinivasan SH, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: an evolving perspective. Postgrad Med J, 2021, 97(1146): 250-255.
5. Halicka M, Vittersø AD, Proulx MJ, et al. Neuropsychological changes in complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). Behav Neurol, 2020, 2020: 4561831.
6. Harden RN, Oaklander AL, Burton AW, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: practical diagnostic and treatment guidelines, 4th edition. Pain Med, 2013, 14(2): 180-229.
7. Dimova V, Herrnberger MS, Escolano-Lozano F, et al. Clinical phenotypes and classification algorithm for complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology, 2020, 94(4): e357-e367.
8. Giri S, Nixdorf D. Sympathetically maintained pain presenting first as temporomandibular disorder, then as parotid dysfunction. Tex Dent J, 2007, 124(8): 748-752.
9. Theophanous C, Jacobs DS, Hamrah P. Corneal neuralgia after LASIK. Optom Vis Sci, 2015, 92(9): e233-e240.
10. Sakamoto E, Shiiba S, Noma N, et al. A possible case of complex regional pain syndrome in the orofacial region. Pain Med, 2010, 11(2): 274-280.
11. Veldman PH, Jacobs PB. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the head: case report and discussion of diagnostic criteria. J Trauma, 1994, 36(1): 119-121.
12. Teeple E, Ferrer EB, Ghia JN, et al. Pourfour Du Petit syndrome-hypersympathetic dysfunctional state following a direct non-penetrating injury to the cervical sympathetic chain and brachial plexus. Anesthesiology, 1981, 55(5): 591-592.
13. Figuerola M, Bruera O, Leston J. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face: an unusual cause of facial pain. Headache Quarterly, 2000, 11(2): 135-137.
14. Goenka A, Aziz M, Riley P, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome involving the face following snowball injury. Eur J Pediatr, 2014, 173(3): 397-400.
15. Parkitny L, Wand BM, Graham C, et al. Interdisciplinary management of complex regional pain syndrome of the face. Phys Ther, 2016, 96(7): 1067-1073.
16. González-Cantero Á, Sánchez-Moya AI, Pérez-Hortet C, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome of the face in a child. Int J Dermatol, 2018, 57(12): 1502-1503.
17. Thapa D, Ahuja V. Complex regional pain syndrome-Ⅰ following eye injury. Indian J Anaesth, 2012, 56(6): 596-597.
18. Morimoto Y, Kamikawa K, Shirakawa J, et al. A case of reflex sympathetic dystrophy following a retinous surgery. Masui, 1997, 46(4): 549-551.
19. Hanowell ST, Kennedy SF. Phantom tongue pain and causalgia: case presentation and treatment. Anesth Analg, 1979, 58(5): 436-438.
20. Jaeger B, Singer E, Kroening R. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face. Report of two cases and a review of the literature. Arch Neurol, 1986, 43(7): 693-695.
21. Khoury R, Kennedy SF, Macnamara TE. Facial causalgia: report of case. J Oral Surg, 1980, 38(10): 782-783.
22. Saxen MA, Campbell RL. An unusual case of sympathetically maintained facial pain complicated by telangiectasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod, 1995, 79(4): 455-458.
23. Nixdorf DR, Sobieh R, Gierthmühlen J. Using an n-of-1 trial to assist in clinical decision making for patients with orofacial pain. J Am Dent Assoc, 2012, 143(3): 259-261.
24. Heir GM, Nasri-Heir C, Thomas D, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome following trigeminal nerve injury: report of 2 cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol, 2012, 114(6): 733-739.
25. Lee YH, Lee KM, Kim HG, et al. Orofacial complex regional pain syndrome: pathophysiologic mechanisms and functional MRI. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol, 2017, 124(2): e164-e170.
26. Kalladka M, Alhasan H, Morubagal N, et al. Orofacial complex regional pain syndrome. J Oral Sci, 2020, 62(4): 455-457.
27. Arden RL, Bahu SJ, Zuazu MA, et al. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face: current treatment recommendations. Laryngoscope, 1998, 108(3): 437-442.
28. Arjmand P, Azizi B, Bal M, et al. Periorbital complex regional pain syndrome. Can J Ophthalmol, 2017, 52(2): e49-e52.
29. Cook A, Ghanavatian S, Jowza M. Spontaneous spread of limb complex regional pain syndrome to the ipsilateral face with ultimate corneal abrasion: a case report. A A Pract, 2020, 14(10): e01301.
30. Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell, 2009, 139(2): 267-284.
31. Zhang H, Li F, Li WW, et al. The inflammasome as a target for pain therapy. Br J Anaesth, 2016, 117(6): 693-707.
32. Bharwani KD, Dik WA, Dirckx M, et al. Highlighting the role of biomarkers of inflammation in the diagnosis and management of complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Diagn Ther, 2019, 23(5): 615-626.
33. Ji RR, Nackley A, Huh Y, et al. Neuroinflammation and central sensitization in chronic and widespread pain. Anesthesiology, 2018, 129(2): 343-366.
34. Theofilopoulos AN, Gonzalez-Quintial R, Lawson BR, et al. Sensors of the innate immune system: their link to rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol, 2010, 6(3): 146-156.
35. David Clark J, Tawfik VL, Tajerian M, et al. Autoinflammatory and autoimmune contributions to complex regional pain syndrome. Mol Pain, 2018, 14: 1744806918799127.
36. Ren K, Torres R. Role of interleukin-1beta during pain and inflammation. Brain Res Rev, 2009, 60(1): 57-64.
37. Li WW, Guo TZ, Liang D, et al. The NALP1 inflammasome controls cytokine production and nociception in a rat fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain, 2009, 147(1/2/3): 277-286.
38. Chen RX, Yin CY, Hu QM, et al. Expression profiling of spinal cord dorsal Horn in a rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type-Ⅰ uncovers potential mechanisms mediating pain and neuroinflammation responses. J Neuroinflammation, 2020, 17(1): 162.
39. He W, Long T, Pan Q, et al. Microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation mediates IL-1β release and contributes to central sensitization in a recurrent nitroglycerin-induced migraine model. J Neuroinflammation, 2019, 16(1): 78.
40. Aral K, Milward MR, Kapila Y, et al. Inflammasomes and their regulation in periodontal disease: a review. J Periodontal Res, 2020, 55(4): 473-487.
41. Leis S, Weber M, Isselmann A, et al. Substance-P-induced protein extravasation is bilaterally increased in complex regional pain syndrome. Exp Neurol, 2003, 183(1): 197-204.
42. Peterlin BL, Rosso AL, Nair S, et al. Migraine may be a risk factor for the development of complex regional pain syndrome. Cephalalgia, 2010, 30(2): 214-223.
43. Woldeamanuel YW, Cooley C, Foley-Saldena K, et al. Migraine and complex regional pain syndrome: a case-referent clinical study. Biomed Res Int, 2017, 2017: 5714673.
44. Strupf M, Fraunberger B, Messlinger K, et al. Cyclic changes in sensations to painful stimuli in migraine patients. Cephalalgia, 2019, 39(5): 585-596.
45. Matsuda M, Huh Y, Ji RR. Roles of inflammation, neurogenic inflammation, and neuroinflammation in pain. J Anesth, 2019, 33(1): 131-139.
46. Wei T, Guo TZ, Li WW, et al. Acute versus chronic phase mechanisms in a rat model of CRPS. J Neuroinflammation, 2016, 13(1): 14.
47. Shinoda M, Kubo A, Hayashi Y, et al. Peripheral and central mechanisms of persistent orofacial pain. Front Neurosci, 2019, 13: 1227.
48. Fakih D, Zhao Z, Nicolle P, et al. Chronic dry eye induced corneal hypersensitivity, neuroinflammatory responses, and synaptic plasticity in the mouse trigeminal brainstem. J Neuroinflammation, 2019, 16(1): 268.
49. Yao G, Man YH, Li AR, et al. NO up-regulates migraine-related CGRP via activation of an Akt/GSK-3β/NF-κB signaling cascade in trigeminal ganglion neurons. Aging (Albany NY), 2020, 12(7): 6370-6384.
50. Jiang BC, Zhang J, Wu B, et al. G protein-coupled receptor GPR151 is involved in trigeminal neuropathic pain through the induction of Gβγ/extracellular signal-regulated kinase-mediated neuroinflammation in the trigeminal ganglion. Pain, 2021, 162(5): 1434-1448.
51. Knudsen LF, Terkelsen AJ, Drummond PD, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: a focus on the autonomic nervous system. Clin Auton Res, 2019, 29(4): 457-467.
52. Drummond PD, Morellini N, Finch PM, et al. Complex regional pain syndrome: intradermal injection of phenylephrine evokes pain and hyperalgesia in a subgroup of patients with upregulated α1-adrenoceptors on dermal nerves. Pain, 2018, 159(11): 2296-2305.
53. Drummond ES, Maker G, Birklein F, et al. Topical prazosin attenuates sensitivity to tactile stimuli in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Eur J Pain, 2016, 20(6): 926-935.
54. Gorodkin R, Herrick AL, Murray AK. Microvascular response in patients with complex regional pain syndrome as measured by laser Doppler imaging. Microcirculation, 2016, 23(5): 379-383.
55. Poudel A, Asahina M, Fujinuma Y, et al. Skin sympathetic function in complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Clin Auton Res, 2015, 25(6): 367-371.
56. Yvon A, Faroni A, Reid AJ, et al. Selective fiber degeneration in the peripheral nerve of a patient with severe complex regional pain syndrome. Front Neurosci, 2018, 12: 207.
57. Rasmussen VF, Karlsson P, Drummond PD, et al. Bilaterally reduced intraepidermal nerve fiber density in unilateral CRPS-I. Pain Med, 2018, 19(10): 2021-2030.
58. Oaklander AL, Rissmiller JG, Gelman LB, et al. Evidence of focal small-fiber axonal degeneration in complex regional pain syndrome-Ⅰ (reflex sympathetic dystrophy). Pain, 2006, 120(3): 235-243.
59. Valle LD, Schwartzman RJ, Alexander G. Spinal cord histopathological alterations in a patient with longstanding complex regional pain syndrome. Brain Behav Immun, 2009, 23(1): 85-91.
60. van Rijn MA, Marinus J, Putter H, et al. Spreading of complex regional pain syndrome: not a random process. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2011, 118(9): 1301-1309.
61. Knudsen L, Finch PM, Drummond PD. The specificity and mechanisms of hemilateral sensory disturbances in complex regional pain syndrome. J Pain, 2011, 12(9): 985-990.
62. Drummond PD, Finch PM, Birklein F, et al. Hemisensory disturbances in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Pain, 2018, 159(9): 1824-1832.
63. Drummond PD, Vo L, Finch PM. The source of hemisensory disturbances in complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain, 2021, 37(2): 79-85.
64. Drummond PD, Finch PM. Photophobia in complex regional pain syndrome: visual discomfort is greater on the affected than unaffected side. Pain, 2021, 162(4): 1233-1240.
65. Bianchi Marzoli S, Criscuoli A. Unilateral recurrent periorbital pain: the role of the neuro-ophthalmologist. Neurol Sci, 2019, 40(Suppl 1): 115-121.
66. Jeremic-Knezevic M, Knezevic A, Boban N, et al. Correlation of somatization, depression, and chronic pain with clinical findings of the temporomandibular disorders in asymptomatic women. Cranio, 2021, 39(1): 17-23.
67. Fan W, Zhu X, He Y, et al. Peripheral sympathetic mechanisms in orofacial pain. J Pain Res, 2018, 11: 2425-2431.
68. Ananthan S, Benoliel R. Chronic orofacial pain. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2020, 127(4): 575-588.
69. Ramachandran R. Neurogenic inflammation and its role in migraine. Semin Immunopathol, 2018, 40(3): 301-314.

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