Research progress on incidence rate and risk factors of ischemic stroke in people living with HIV/AIDS_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

HU Linxue ,  YANG Rong , WU Xiaoyan , DENG Zhiqiang

West China School of Nursing, Sichuan University / Department of Neurology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

YANG Rong, Email: hxyangrong2004@126.com

Keywords：

Human immunodeficiency virus; acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; ischemic stroke; risk factors

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202204048

Video：

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In recent years, the incidence rate of ischemic stroke in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) is increasing, attracting wide attention from scholars at home and abroad. In addition to traditional risk factors of stroke, the secondary ischemic stroke in PLWHA is also affected by HIV infection. This study reviews the incidence rate and risk factors of secondary ischemic stroke in PLWHA, in order to provide a theoretical basis for preventing and reducing the incidence of ischemic stroke in PLWHA.

Citation： HU Linxue, YANG Rong, WU Xiaoyan, DENG Zhiqiang. Research progress on incidence rate and risk factors of ischemic stroke in people living with HIV/AIDS. West China Medical Journal, 2022, 37(6): 926-931. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202204048 Copy

1.	Smit M, Cassidy R, Cozzi-Lepri A, et al. Projections of non-communicable disease and health care costs among HIV-positive persons in Italy and the U. S. A.: a modelling study. PLoS One, 2017, 12(10): e0186638.
2.	Liu J, Hou Y, Sun L, et al. High population-attributable fractions of traditional risk factors for non-AIDS-defining diseases among people living with HIV in China: a cohort study. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2021, 10(1): 416-423.
3.	Crane HM, Nance RM, Avoundjian T, et al. Types of stroke among people living with HIV in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2021, 86(5): 568-578.
4.	Abdallah A, Chang JL, O’Carroll CB, et al. Stroke in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): a systematic review. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2018, 27(7): 1828-1836.
5.	Ovbiagele B, Nath A. Increasing incidence of ischemic stroke in patients with HIV infection. Neurology, 2011, 76(5): 444-450.
6.	Chow FC, Wilson MR, Wu K, et al. Stroke incidence is highest in women and non-Hispanic blacks living with HIV in the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Longitudinal Linked Randomized Trials cohort. AIDS, 2018, 32(9): 1125-1135.
7.	Kendall CE, Wong J, Taljaard M, et al. A cross-sectional, population-based study measuring comorbidity among people living with HIV in Ontario. BMC Public Health, 2014, 14: 161.
8.	Quiros-Roldan E, Raffetti E, Focà E, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular events in HIV-positive patients compared to general population over the last decade: a population-based study from 2000 to 2012. AIDS Care, 2016, 28(12): 1551-1558.
9.	Corral I, Quereda C, Moreno A, et al. Cerebrovascular ischemic events in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: incidence and risk factors. Cerebrovasc Dis, 2009, 27(6): 559-563.
10.	Gooden TE, Gardner M, Wang J, et al. Incidence of cardiometabolic diseases in people with and without human immunodeficiency virus in the United Kingdom: a population-based matched cohort study. J Infect Dis, 2022, 225(8): 1348-1356.
11.	GBD 2017 HIV collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and mortality of HIV, 1980-2017, and forecasts to 2030, for 195 countries and territories: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2017. Lancet HIV, 2019, 6(12): e831-e859.
12.	Sarfo FS, Norman B, Appiah L, et al. Factors associated with incidence of stroke and heart failure among people living with HIV in Ghana: Evaluating Vascular Event Risk while on Long-Term Antiretroviral Suppressive Therapy (EVERLAST) Study. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich), 2021, 23(6): 1252-1259.
13.	Mapoure YN, Nkongni IN, Luma HN, et al. Incidence of strokes in HIV-positive patients treated with long term antiretroviral treatment. Pan Afr Med J, 2016, 24: 45.
14.	Bijker R, Jiamsakul A, Uy E, et al. Cardiovascular disease-related mortality and factors associated with cardiovascular events in the TREAT Asia HIV Observational Database (TAHOD). HIV Med, 2019, 20(3): 183-191.
15.	Lin HL, Muo CH, Lin CY, et al. Incidence of stroke in patients with HIV infection: a population-based study in Taiwan. PLoS One, 2019, 14(5): e0217147.
16.	Lai YJ, Chen YY, Huang HH, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular diseases in a nationwide HIV/AIDS patient cohort in Taiwan from 2000 to 2014. Epidemiol Infect, 2018, 146(16): 2066-2071.
17.	Hiransuthikul A, Chutinet A, Sophonphan J, et al. Short communication: incidence and risk factors of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack among people living with HIV: a longitudinal cohort study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 2022, 38(2): 131-134.
18.	Vinikoor MJ, Napravnik S, Floris-Moore M, et al. Incidence and clinical features of cerebrovascular disease among HIV-infected adults in the Southeastern United States. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 2013, 29(7): 1068-1074.
19.	Benjamin LA, Bryer A, Lucas S, et al. Arterial ischemic stroke in HIV: defining and classifying etiology for research studies. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 2016, 3(4): e254.
20.	Eugenin EA, Morgello S, Klotman ME, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infects human arterial smooth muscle cells in vivo and in vitro: implications for the pathogenesis of HIV-mediated vascular disease. Am J Pathol, 2008, 172(4): 1100-1111.
21.	Benjamin LA, Bryer A, Emsley HC, et al. HIV infection and stroke: current perspectives and future directions. Lancet Neurol, 2012, 11(10): 878-890.
22.	Tipping B, De Villiers L, Wainwright H, et al. Stroke in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2007, 78(12): 1320-1324.
23.	Yen YF, Chen M, Jen I, et al. Association of HIV and opportunistic infections with incident stroke: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Taiwan. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2017, 74(2): 117-125.
24.	Rasmussen LD, Engsig FN, Christensen H, et al. Risk of cerebrovascular events in persons with and without HIV: a Danish nationwide population-based cohort study. AIDS, 2011, 25(13): 1637-1646.
25.	Vishnu P, Aboulafia DM. Haematological manifestations of human immune deficiency virus infection. Br J Haematol, 2015, 171(5): 695-709.
26.	Stahl CP, Wideman CS, Spira TJ, et al. Protein S deficiency in men with long-term human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood, 1993, 81(7): 1801-1807.
27.	Ortiz G, Koch S, Romano JG, et al. Mechanisms of ischemic stroke in HIV-infected patients. Neurology, 2007, 68(16): 1257-1261.
28.	Mochan A, Modi M, Modi G. Protein S deficiency in HIV associated ischaemic stroke: an epiphenomenon of HIV infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2005, 76(10): 1455-1456.
29.	Harding BN, Avoundjian T, Heckbert SR, et al. HIV viremia and risk of stroke among people living with HIV who are using antiretroviral therapy. Epidemiology, 2021, 32(3): 457-464.
30.	Sico JJ, Chang CC, So-Armah K, et al. HIV status and the risk of ischemic stroke among men. Neurology, 2015, 84(19): 1933-1940.
31.	Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel Ⅲ). JAMA, 2001, 285(19): 2486-2497.
32.	Polanka BM, Kundu S, So-Armah KA, et al. Insomnia as an independent predictor of incident cardiovascular disease in HIV: data from the veterans aging cohort study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2019, 81(1): 110-117.
33.	Betancur MN, Lins L, Oliveira IR, et al. Quality of life, anxiety and depression in patients with HIV/AIDS who present poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a cross-sectional study in Salvador, Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis, 2017, 21(5): 507-514.
34.	Oliveira R, Shimakura SE, Campos DP, et al. Effects of antiretroviral treatment and nadir CD4 count in progression to cardiovascular events and related comorbidities in a HIV Brazilian cohort: a multi-stage approach. AIDS Care, 2018, 30(5): 551-559.
35.	Ryom L, Lundgren JD, El-Sadr W, et al. Cardiovascular disease and use of contemporary protease inhibitors: the D: A: D international prospective multicohort study. Lancet HIV, 2018, 5(6): 291-300.
36.	Bavinger C, Bendavid E, Niehaus K, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease from antiretroviral therapy for HIV: a systematic review. PLoS One, 2013, 8(3): e59551.
37.	Solages A, Vita JA, Thornton DJ, et al. Endothelial function in HIV-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis, 2006, 42(9): 1325-1332.
38.	Ross AC, Rizk N, O’Riordan MA, et al. Relationship between inflammatory markers, endothelial activation markers, and carotid intima-media thickness in HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis, 2009, 49(7): 1119-1127.
39.	Chow FC, Regan S, Feske S, et al. Comparison of ischemic stroke incidence in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients in a US health care system. Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2012, 60(4): 351-358.
40.	Bhagavati S, Choi J. Rapidly progressive cerebrovascular stenosis and recurrent strokes followed by improvement in HIV vasculopathy. Cerebrovasc Dis, 2008, 26(4): 449-452.
41.	Kroon L, Van Zyl DG, Schutte CM, et al. Risk factors for stroke in HIV-positive and-negative patients in Pretoria, South Africa. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2021, 30(8): 105929.
42.	Heikinheimo T, Chimbayo D, Kumwenda JJ, et al. Stroke outcomes in Malawi, a country with high prevalence of HIV: a prospective follow-up study. PLoS One, 2012, 7(3): e33765.
43.	Tirschwell D, Chow F, Becker K, et al. Incidence of Stroke in the US Centers for AIDS Research (CFAR) Network of Integrated Clinical Systems (CNICS) Cohort (S51.008). Neurology, 2017, 88(16 Suppl): S51.008.
44.	Härkönen PL, Väänänen HK. Monocyte-macrophage system as a target for estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2006, 1089: 218-227.
45.	Thakur KT, Lyons JL, Smith BR, et al. Stroke in HIV-infected African Americans: a retrospective cohort study. J Neurovirol, 2016, 22(1): 50-55.
46.	Chow FC, Regan S, Zanni MV, et al. Elevated ischemic stroke risk among women living with HIV infection. AIDS, 2018, 32(1): 59-67.
47.	Gutierrez J, Williams OA. A decade of racial and ethnic stroke disparities in the United States. Neurology, 2014, 82(12): 1080-1082.
48.	Chow FC, Boscardin WJ, Mills C, et al. Cerebral vasoreactivity is impaired in treated, virally suppressed HIV-infected individuals. AIDS, 2016, 30(1): 45-55.
49.	Lee B, Anekthananon T, Poungvarin N, et al. Etiology and risk factors of stroke in HIV-infected patients in Siriraj Hospital: a case-control study. J Med Assoc Thai, 2012, 95(Suppl 2): S227-S234.
50.	Ballocca F, D’Ascenzo F, Gili S, et al. Cardiovascular disease in patients with HIV. Trends Cardiovasc Med, 2017, 27(8): 558-563.
51.	Touloumi G, Kalpourtzi N, Papastamopoulos V, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in HIV infected individuals: comparison with general adult control population in Greece. PLoS One, 2020, 15(3): e0230730.
52.	Rasmussen LD, Helleberg M, May MT, et al. Myocardial infarction among Danish HIV-infected individuals: population-attributable fractions associated with smoking. Clin Infect Dis, 2015, 60(9): 1415-1423.
53.	Degenhardt L, Peacock A, Colledge S, et al. Global prevalence of injecting drug use and sociodemographic characteristics and prevalence of HIV, HBV, and HCV in people who inject drugs: a multistage systematic review. Lancet Glob Health, 2017, 5(12): e1192-e1207.
54.	Fonseca AC, Ferro JM. Drug abuse and stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 2013, 13(2): 325.
55.	Cole JW, Pinto AN, Hebel JR, et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and the risk of stroke. Stroke, 2004, 35(1): 51-56.
56.	Sico JJ, Kundu S, So-Armah K, et al. Depression as a risk factor for incident ischemic stroke among HIV-positive veterans in the veterans aging cohort study. J Am Heart Assoc, 2021, 10(13): e017637.
57.	Parruti G, Vadini F, Sozio F, et al. Psychological factors, including alexithymia, in the prediction of cardiovascular risk in HIV infected patients: results of a cohort study. PLoS One, 2013, 8(1): e54555.
58.	Rosengren A, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11119 cases and 13648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet, 2004, 364(9438): 953-962.
59.	Weinberger AH, Rachel SK, Danielle MS, et al. Depression and cigarette smoking behavior: a critical review of population-based studies. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 2017, 43(4): 416-431.
60.	Silva-Pinto A, Costa A, Serrão R, et al. Ischaemic stroke in HIV-infected patients: a case-control study. HIV Med, 2017, 18(3): 214-219.
61.	D’Ascenzo F, Quadri G, Cerrato E, et al. A meta-analysis investigating incidence and features of stroke in HIV-infected patients in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown), 2015, 16(12): 839-843.
62.	Zhang L, Wang Y, Xu Q, et al. Stroke among highly active antiretroviral therapy-naive people living with the human immunodeficiency virus in China: a retrospective study of the characteristics, risk factors, and prognosis. BMC Infect Dis, 2022, 22(1): 4.

1. Smit M, Cassidy R, Cozzi-Lepri A, et al. Projections of non-communicable disease and health care costs among HIV-positive persons in Italy and the U. S. A.: a modelling study. PLoS One, 2017, 12(10): e0186638.
2. Liu J, Hou Y, Sun L, et al. High population-attributable fractions of traditional risk factors for non-AIDS-defining diseases among people living with HIV in China: a cohort study. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2021, 10(1): 416-423.
3. Crane HM, Nance RM, Avoundjian T, et al. Types of stroke among people living with HIV in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2021, 86(5): 568-578.
4. Abdallah A, Chang JL, O’Carroll CB, et al. Stroke in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA): a systematic review. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2018, 27(7): 1828-1836.
5. Ovbiagele B, Nath A. Increasing incidence of ischemic stroke in patients with HIV infection. Neurology, 2011, 76(5): 444-450.
6. Chow FC, Wilson MR, Wu K, et al. Stroke incidence is highest in women and non-Hispanic blacks living with HIV in the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Longitudinal Linked Randomized Trials cohort. AIDS, 2018, 32(9): 1125-1135.
7. Kendall CE, Wong J, Taljaard M, et al. A cross-sectional, population-based study measuring comorbidity among people living with HIV in Ontario. BMC Public Health, 2014, 14: 161.
8. Quiros-Roldan E, Raffetti E, Focà E, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular events in HIV-positive patients compared to general population over the last decade: a population-based study from 2000 to 2012. AIDS Care, 2016, 28(12): 1551-1558.
9. Corral I, Quereda C, Moreno A, et al. Cerebrovascular ischemic events in HIV-1-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: incidence and risk factors. Cerebrovasc Dis, 2009, 27(6): 559-563.
10. Gooden TE, Gardner M, Wang J, et al. Incidence of cardiometabolic diseases in people with and without human immunodeficiency virus in the United Kingdom: a population-based matched cohort study. J Infect Dis, 2022, 225(8): 1348-1356.
11. GBD 2017 HIV collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and mortality of HIV, 1980-2017, and forecasts to 2030, for 195 countries and territories: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2017. Lancet HIV, 2019, 6(12): e831-e859.
12. Sarfo FS, Norman B, Appiah L, et al. Factors associated with incidence of stroke and heart failure among people living with HIV in Ghana: Evaluating Vascular Event Risk while on Long-Term Antiretroviral Suppressive Therapy (EVERLAST) Study. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich), 2021, 23(6): 1252-1259.
13. Mapoure YN, Nkongni IN, Luma HN, et al. Incidence of strokes in HIV-positive patients treated with long term antiretroviral treatment. Pan Afr Med J, 2016, 24: 45.
14. Bijker R, Jiamsakul A, Uy E, et al. Cardiovascular disease-related mortality and factors associated with cardiovascular events in the TREAT Asia HIV Observational Database (TAHOD). HIV Med, 2019, 20(3): 183-191.
15. Lin HL, Muo CH, Lin CY, et al. Incidence of stroke in patients with HIV infection: a population-based study in Taiwan. PLoS One, 2019, 14(5): e0217147.
16. Lai YJ, Chen YY, Huang HH, et al. Incidence of cardiovascular diseases in a nationwide HIV/AIDS patient cohort in Taiwan from 2000 to 2014. Epidemiol Infect, 2018, 146(16): 2066-2071.
17. Hiransuthikul A, Chutinet A, Sophonphan J, et al. Short communication: incidence and risk factors of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack among people living with HIV: a longitudinal cohort study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 2022, 38(2): 131-134.
18. Vinikoor MJ, Napravnik S, Floris-Moore M, et al. Incidence and clinical features of cerebrovascular disease among HIV-infected adults in the Southeastern United States. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 2013, 29(7): 1068-1074.
19. Benjamin LA, Bryer A, Lucas S, et al. Arterial ischemic stroke in HIV: defining and classifying etiology for research studies. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm, 2016, 3(4): e254.
20. Eugenin EA, Morgello S, Klotman ME, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infects human arterial smooth muscle cells in vivo and in vitro: implications for the pathogenesis of HIV-mediated vascular disease. Am J Pathol, 2008, 172(4): 1100-1111.
21. Benjamin LA, Bryer A, Emsley HC, et al. HIV infection and stroke: current perspectives and future directions. Lancet Neurol, 2012, 11(10): 878-890.
22. Tipping B, De Villiers L, Wainwright H, et al. Stroke in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2007, 78(12): 1320-1324.
23. Yen YF, Chen M, Jen I, et al. Association of HIV and opportunistic infections with incident stroke: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Taiwan. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2017, 74(2): 117-125.
24. Rasmussen LD, Engsig FN, Christensen H, et al. Risk of cerebrovascular events in persons with and without HIV: a Danish nationwide population-based cohort study. AIDS, 2011, 25(13): 1637-1646.
25. Vishnu P, Aboulafia DM. Haematological manifestations of human immune deficiency virus infection. Br J Haematol, 2015, 171(5): 695-709.
26. Stahl CP, Wideman CS, Spira TJ, et al. Protein S deficiency in men with long-term human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood, 1993, 81(7): 1801-1807.
27. Ortiz G, Koch S, Romano JG, et al. Mechanisms of ischemic stroke in HIV-infected patients. Neurology, 2007, 68(16): 1257-1261.
28. Mochan A, Modi M, Modi G. Protein S deficiency in HIV associated ischaemic stroke: an epiphenomenon of HIV infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2005, 76(10): 1455-1456.
29. Harding BN, Avoundjian T, Heckbert SR, et al. HIV viremia and risk of stroke among people living with HIV who are using antiretroviral therapy. Epidemiology, 2021, 32(3): 457-464.
30. Sico JJ, Chang CC, So-Armah K, et al. HIV status and the risk of ischemic stroke among men. Neurology, 2015, 84(19): 1933-1940.
31. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel Ⅲ). JAMA, 2001, 285(19): 2486-2497.
32. Polanka BM, Kundu S, So-Armah KA, et al. Insomnia as an independent predictor of incident cardiovascular disease in HIV: data from the veterans aging cohort study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2019, 81(1): 110-117.
33. Betancur MN, Lins L, Oliveira IR, et al. Quality of life, anxiety and depression in patients with HIV/AIDS who present poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy: a cross-sectional study in Salvador, Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis, 2017, 21(5): 507-514.
34. Oliveira R, Shimakura SE, Campos DP, et al. Effects of antiretroviral treatment and nadir CD4 count in progression to cardiovascular events and related comorbidities in a HIV Brazilian cohort: a multi-stage approach. AIDS Care, 2018, 30(5): 551-559.
35. Ryom L, Lundgren JD, El-Sadr W, et al. Cardiovascular disease and use of contemporary protease inhibitors: the D: A: D international prospective multicohort study. Lancet HIV, 2018, 5(6): 291-300.
36. Bavinger C, Bendavid E, Niehaus K, et al. Risk of cardiovascular disease from antiretroviral therapy for HIV: a systematic review. PLoS One, 2013, 8(3): e59551.
37. Solages A, Vita JA, Thornton DJ, et al. Endothelial function in HIV-infected persons. Clin Infect Dis, 2006, 42(9): 1325-1332.
38. Ross AC, Rizk N, O’Riordan MA, et al. Relationship between inflammatory markers, endothelial activation markers, and carotid intima-media thickness in HIV-infected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis, 2009, 49(7): 1119-1127.
39. Chow FC, Regan S, Feske S, et al. Comparison of ischemic stroke incidence in HIV-infected and non-HIV-infected patients in a US health care system. Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 2012, 60(4): 351-358.
40. Bhagavati S, Choi J. Rapidly progressive cerebrovascular stenosis and recurrent strokes followed by improvement in HIV vasculopathy. Cerebrovasc Dis, 2008, 26(4): 449-452.
41. Kroon L, Van Zyl DG, Schutte CM, et al. Risk factors for stroke in HIV-positive and-negative patients in Pretoria, South Africa. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2021, 30(8): 105929.
42. Heikinheimo T, Chimbayo D, Kumwenda JJ, et al. Stroke outcomes in Malawi, a country with high prevalence of HIV: a prospective follow-up study. PLoS One, 2012, 7(3): e33765.
43. Tirschwell D, Chow F, Becker K, et al. Incidence of Stroke in the US Centers for AIDS Research (CFAR) Network of Integrated Clinical Systems (CNICS) Cohort (S51.008). Neurology, 2017, 88(16 Suppl): S51.008.
44. Härkönen PL, Väänänen HK. Monocyte-macrophage system as a target for estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 2006, 1089: 218-227.
45. Thakur KT, Lyons JL, Smith BR, et al. Stroke in HIV-infected African Americans: a retrospective cohort study. J Neurovirol, 2016, 22(1): 50-55.
46. Chow FC, Regan S, Zanni MV, et al. Elevated ischemic stroke risk among women living with HIV infection. AIDS, 2018, 32(1): 59-67.
47. Gutierrez J, Williams OA. A decade of racial and ethnic stroke disparities in the United States. Neurology, 2014, 82(12): 1080-1082.
48. Chow FC, Boscardin WJ, Mills C, et al. Cerebral vasoreactivity is impaired in treated, virally suppressed HIV-infected individuals. AIDS, 2016, 30(1): 45-55.
49. Lee B, Anekthananon T, Poungvarin N, et al. Etiology and risk factors of stroke in HIV-infected patients in Siriraj Hospital: a case-control study. J Med Assoc Thai, 2012, 95(Suppl 2): S227-S234.
50. Ballocca F, D’Ascenzo F, Gili S, et al. Cardiovascular disease in patients with HIV. Trends Cardiovasc Med, 2017, 27(8): 558-563.
51. Touloumi G, Kalpourtzi N, Papastamopoulos V, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in HIV infected individuals: comparison with general adult control population in Greece. PLoS One, 2020, 15(3): e0230730.
52. Rasmussen LD, Helleberg M, May MT, et al. Myocardial infarction among Danish HIV-infected individuals: population-attributable fractions associated with smoking. Clin Infect Dis, 2015, 60(9): 1415-1423.
53. Degenhardt L, Peacock A, Colledge S, et al. Global prevalence of injecting drug use and sociodemographic characteristics and prevalence of HIV, HBV, and HCV in people who inject drugs: a multistage systematic review. Lancet Glob Health, 2017, 5(12): e1192-e1207.
54. Fonseca AC, Ferro JM. Drug abuse and stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 2013, 13(2): 325.
55. Cole JW, Pinto AN, Hebel JR, et al. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and the risk of stroke. Stroke, 2004, 35(1): 51-56.
56. Sico JJ, Kundu S, So-Armah K, et al. Depression as a risk factor for incident ischemic stroke among HIV-positive veterans in the veterans aging cohort study. J Am Heart Assoc, 2021, 10(13): e017637.
57. Parruti G, Vadini F, Sozio F, et al. Psychological factors, including alexithymia, in the prediction of cardiovascular risk in HIV infected patients: results of a cohort study. PLoS One, 2013, 8(1): e54555.
58. Rosengren A, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Association of psychosocial risk factors with risk of acute myocardial infarction in 11119 cases and 13648 controls from 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet, 2004, 364(9438): 953-962.
59. Weinberger AH, Rachel SK, Danielle MS, et al. Depression and cigarette smoking behavior: a critical review of population-based studies. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 2017, 43(4): 416-431.
60. Silva-Pinto A, Costa A, Serrão R, et al. Ischaemic stroke in HIV-infected patients: a case-control study. HIV Med, 2017, 18(3): 214-219.
61. D’Ascenzo F, Quadri G, Cerrato E, et al. A meta-analysis investigating incidence and features of stroke in HIV-infected patients in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown), 2015, 16(12): 839-843.
62. Zhang L, Wang Y, Xu Q, et al. Stroke among highly active antiretroviral therapy-naive people living with the human immunodeficiency virus in China: a retrospective study of the characteristics, risk factors, and prognosis. BMC Infect Dis, 2022, 22(1): 4.

West China Medical Journal

Research progress on incidence rate and risk factors of ischemic stroke in people living with HIV/AIDS

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