- 1. Hospital Infection Control Office, the Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P. R. China;
- 2. Hospital Infection Control Department, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, P. R. China;
- 3. Infection Control Office, Jiangsu Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210000, P. R. China;
- 4. Infection Management Office, the First People’s Hospital of Changzhou, Changzhou, Jiangsu 213001, P. R. China;
- 5. Infection Control Center, Sichuan Provincial People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan 610072, P. R. China;
- 6. Infection Management Department, East Hospital, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, P. R. China;
Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a kind of pneumonia that occurs when artificial airway (tracheal intubation or tracheotomy) is established and mechanical ventilation is accepted. The occurrence of VAP will significantly prolong the ventilation time and hospitalization time of patients, increase the mortality rate and the medical burden. In order to effectively prevent and reduce the occurrence of VAP, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America released the Strategies to Prevent Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, Ventilator-Associated Events, and Nonventilator Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in Acute-Care Hospitals: 2022 Update, which is an update of the 2014 version. In order to facilitate the reading and understanding of the medical workers, this article will interpret the infection prevention and control strategies of adult VAP and ventilator-related events.
Citation: KONG Yi, GAO Xiaodong, DAI Zhengxiang, RUI Li, WANG Weiwei, DI Jia, CHEN Jing, TAN Shanjuan, HU Bijie. Interpretation of SHEA strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia and ventilator-associated events in acute-care hospitals: 2022 update. West China Medical Journal, 2023, 38(3): 336-345. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202301073 Copy
1. | 朱仕超, 尹维佳, 宗志勇, 等. 呼吸机相关性肺炎定义和判断标准研究进展. 中华医院感染学杂志, 2016, 26(23): 5517-5520. |
2. | Papazian L, Klompas M, Luyt CE. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med, 2020, 46(5): 888-906. |
3. | Zilberberg MD, Nathanson BH, Puzniak LA, et al. Descriptive epidemiology and outcomes of nonventilated hospital-acquired, ventilated hospital-acquired, and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in the United States, 2012-2019. Crit Care Med, 2022, 50(3): 460-468. |
4. | Klompas M, Branson R, Cawcutt K, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated events, and nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in acute-care hospitals: 2022 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2022, 43(6): 687-713. |
5. | 莫丽勤, 曾云云, 秦宗泉, 等. 经鼻高流量氧疗在临床中的应用研究进展. 微创医学, 2020, 15(6): 791-794. |
6. | 秦志强. 经鼻高流量氧疗治疗急性呼吸衰竭的参数设置. 中国临床新医学, 2021, 14(4): 350-355. |
7. | 李正东, 詹庆元. 经鼻高流量氧疗. 中国临床新医学, 2019, 12(1): 5-9. |
8. | 高敏, 韩小彤, 文辉, 等. 经鼻高流量氧疗在成人呼吸衰竭患者中的应用进展. 医学综述, 2017, 23(22): 4468-4472. |
9. | Rochwerg B, Granton D, Wang DX, et al. High flow nasal cannula compared with conventional oxygen therapy for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2019, 45(5): 563-572. |
10. | Granton D, Chaudhuri D, Wang D, et al. High-flow nasal cannula compared with conventional oxygen therapy or noninvasive ventilation immediately postextubation: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2020, 48(11): e1129-e1136. |
11. | Chaudhuri D, Granton D, Wang DX, et al. High-flow nasal cannula in the immediate postoperative period: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Chest, 2020, 158(5): 1934-1946. |
12. | Yasuda H, Okano H, Mayumi T, et al. Post-extubation oxygenation strategies in acute respiratory failure: a systematic review and network Meta-analysis. Crit Care, 2021, 25(1): 135. |
13. | Frat JP, Thille AW, Mercat A, et al. High-flow oxygen through nasal cannula in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. N Engl J Med, 2015, 372(23): 2185-2196. |
14. | Osadnik CR, Tee VS, Carson-Chahhoud KV, et al. Non-invasive ventilation for the management of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure due to exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2017, 7(7): CD004104. |
15. | Xu XP, Zhang XC, Hu SL, et al. Noninvasive ventilation in acute hypoxemic nonhypercapnic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2017, 45(7): e727-e733. |
16. | David-João PG, Guedes MH, Réa-Neto Á, et al. Noninvasive ventilation in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. J Crit Care, 2019, 49: 84-91. |
17. | Ferreyro BL, Angriman F, Munshi L, et al. Association of noninvasive oxygenation strategies with all-cause mortality in adults with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA, 2020, 324(1): 57-67. |
18. | Vaschetto R, Pecere A, Perkins GD, et al. Effects of early extubation followed by noninvasive ventilation versus standard extubation on the duration of invasive mechanical ventilation in hypoxemic non-hypercapnic patients: a systematic review and individual patient data Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care, 2021, 25(1): 189. |
19. | Shehabi Y, Bellomo R, Kadiman S, et al. Sedation intensity in the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation and 180-day mortality: a multinational prospective longitudinal cohort study. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(6): 850-859. |
20. | Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Executive summary: clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(9): 1532-1548. |
21. | Fraser GL, Devlin JW, Worby CP, et al. Benzodiazepine versus nonbenzodiazepine-based sedation for mechanically ventilated, critically ill adults: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(Suppl 1): S30-S38. |
22. | Hughes CG, Mailloux PT, Devlin JW, et al. Dexmedetomidine or propofol for sedation in mechanically ventilated adults with sepsis. N Engl J Med, 2021, 384(15): 1424-1436. |
23. | Lewis K, Piticaru J, Chaudhuri D, et al. Safety and efficacy of dexmedetomidine in acutely ill adults requiring noninvasive ventilation: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized trials. Chest, 2021, 159(6): 2274-2288. |
24. | Ouellette DR, Patel S, Girard TD, et al. Liberation from mechanical ventilation in critically ill adults: an official American College of Chest Physicians/American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline: inspiratory pressure augmentation during spontaneous breathing trials, protocols minimizing sedation, and noninvasive ventilation immediately after extubation. Chest, 2017, 151(1): 166-180. |
25. | Strøm T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet, 2010, 375(9713): 475-480. |
26. | Olsen HT, Nedergaard HK, Toft P. Nonsedation or light sedation in critically ill, mechanically ventilated patients. Reply. N Engl J Med, 2020, 382(26): e107. |
27. | Girard TD, Alhazzani W, Kress JP, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians Clinical Practice guideline: liberation from mechanical ventilation in critically ill adults. rehabilitation protocols, ventilator liberation protocols, and cuff leak tests. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2017, 195(1): 120-133. |
28. | Ely EW, Baker AM, Dunagan DP, et al. Effect on the duration of mechanical ventilation of identifying patients capable of breathing spontaneously. N Engl J Med, 1996, 335(25): 1864-1869. |
29. | Kollef MH, Shapiro SD, Silver P, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of protocol-directed versus physician-directed weaning from mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med, 1997, 25(4): 567-574. |
30. | Marelich GP, Murin S, Battistella F, et al. Protocol weaning of mechanical ventilation in medical and surgical patients by respiratory care practitioners and nurses: effect on weaning time and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest, 2000, 118(2): 459-467. |
31. | Lellouche F, Mancebo J, Jolliet P, et al. A multicenter randomized trial of computer-driven protocolized weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2006, 174(8): 894-900. |
32. | Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD, et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (awakening and breathing controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2008, 371(9607): 126-134. |
33. | Hsieh SJ, Otusanya O, Gershengorn HB, et al. Staged implementation of awakening and breathing, coordination, delirium monitoring and management, and early mobilization bundle improves patient outcomes and reduces hospital costs. Crit Care Med, 2019, 47(7): 885-893. |
34. | Zhang L, Hu W, Cai Z, et al. Early mobilization of critically ill patients in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2019, 14(10): e0223185. |
35. | Waldauf P, Jiroutková K, Krajčová A, et al. Effects of rehabilitation interventions on clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care Med, 2020, 48(7): 1055-1065. |
36. | Wang J, Ren D, Liu Y, et al. Effects of early mobilization on the prognosis of critically ill patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud, 2020, 110: 103708. |
37. | Zang K, Chen B, Wang M, et al. The effect of early mobilization in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis. Nurs Crit Care, 2020, 25(6): 360-367. |
38. | Lord RK, Mayhew CR, Korupolu R, et al. ICU early physical rehabilitation programs: financial modeling of cost savings. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(3): 717-724. |
39. | Wang L, Li X, Yang Z, et al. Semi-recumbent position versus supine position for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults requiring mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 2016(1): CD009946. |
40. | Price R, MacLennan G, Glen J, et al. Selective digestive or oropharyngeal decontamination and topical oropharyngeal chlorhexidine for prevention of death in general intensive care: systematic review and network Meta-analysis. BMJ, 2014, 348: g2197. |
41. | Klompas M, Speck K, Howell MD, et al. Reappraisal of routine oral care with chlorhexidine gluconate for patients receiving mechanical ventilation: systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med, 2014, 174(5): 751-761. |
42. | Deschepper M, Waegeman W, Eeckloo K, et al. Effects of chlorhexidine gluconate oral care on hospital mortality: a hospital-wide, observational cohort study. Intensive Care Med, 2018, 44(7): 1017-1026. |
43. | Zhao T, Wu X, Zhang Q, et al. Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2020, 12(12): CD008367. |
44. | Sozkes S, Sozkes S. Use of toothbrushing in conjunction with chlorhexidine for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: a random-effect Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Dent Hyg, 2021: 23. |
45. | Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, et al. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit. Clin Nutr, 2019, 38(1): 48-79. |
46. | Han J, Liu Y. Effect of ventilator circuit changes on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Respir Care, 2010, 55(4): 467-474. |
47. | Ling ML, Ching P, Widitaputra A, et al. APSIC guidelines for disinfection and sterilization of instruments in health care facilities. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2018, 7: 25. |
48. | Bos LD, Stips C, Schouten LR, et al. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract halves the prevalence of ventilator-associated pneumonia compared to selective oral decontamination. Intensive Care Med, 2017, 43(10): 1535-1537. |
49. | Plantinga NL, de Smet AMGA, Oostdijk EAN, et al. Selective digestive and oropharyngeal decontamination in medical and surgical ICU patients: individual patient data Meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2018, 24(5): 505-513. |
50. | Wittekamp BH, Plantinga NL, Cooper BS, et al. Decontamination strategies and bloodstream infections with antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in ventilated patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 320(20): 2087-2098. |
51. | Minozzi S, Pifferi S, Brazzi L, et al. Topical antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2021, 1(1): CD000022. |
52. | Torres A, Niederman MS, Chastre J, et al. International ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP)/ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) of the European Respiratory Society (ERS), European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and Asociación Latinoamericana del Tórax (ALAT). Eur Respir J, 2017, 50(3): 1700582. |
53. | Pozuelo-Carrascosa DP, Herráiz-Adillo Á, Alvarez-Bueno C, et al. Subglottic secretion drainage for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: an overview of systematic reviews and an updated Meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev, 2020, 29(155): 190107. |
54. | Damas P, Frippiat F, Ancion A, et al. Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia and ventilator-associated conditions: a randomized controlled trial with subglottic secretion suctioning. Crit Care Med, 2015, 43(1): 22-30. |
55. | Bouza E, Pérez MJ, Muñoz P, et al. Continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the postoperative period of major heart surgery. Chest, 2008, 134(5): 938-946. |
56. | Lacherade JC, De Jonghe B, Guezennec P, et al. Intermittent subglottic secretion drainage and ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2010, 182(7): 910-917. |
57. | Frost SA, Azeem A, Alexandrou E, et al. Subglottic secretion drainage for preventing ventilator associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis. Aust Crit Care, 2013, 26(4): 180-188. |
58. | Chorath K, Hoang A, Rajasekaran K, et al. Association of early vs late tracheostomy placement with pneumonia and ventilator days in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 2021, 147(5): 450-459. |
59. | Ferguson ND. Tracheostomy for ventilated patients-not when, but in whom?. Crit Care Med, 2005, 33(11): 2695-2696. |
60. | Alkhawaja S, Martin C, Butler RJ, et al. Post-pyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preventing pneumonia and improving nutritional outcomes in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2015, 2015(8): CD008875. |
61. | Liu Y, Wang Y, Zhang B, et al. Gastric-tube versus post-pyloric feeding in critical patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of pulmonary aspiration- and nutrition-related outcomes. Eur J Clin Nutr, 2021, 75(9): 1337-1348. |
62. | McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically ill patient: consensus statement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2002, 26(Suppl 6): S80-S85. |
63. | McClave SA, Taylor BE, Martindale RG, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2016, 40(2): 159-211. |
64. | Hua F, Xie H, Worthington HV, et al. Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 10(10): CD008367. |
65. | Dale CM, Rose L, Carbone S, et al. Effect of oral chlorhexidine de-adoption and implementation of an oral care bundle on mortality for mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit (CHORAL): a multi-center stepped wedge cluster-randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med, 2021, 47(11): 1295-1302. |
66. | Lee S, Lighvan NL, McCredie V, et al. Chlorhexidine-related mortality rate in critically ill subjects in intensive care units: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Respir Care, 2019, 64(3): 337-349. |
67. | Ji T, Zhu X, Shang F, et al. Preventive effect of probiotics on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis of 2428 patients. Ann Pharmacother, 2021, 55(8): 949-962. |
68. | Batra P, Soni KD, Mathur P. Efficacy of probiotics in the prevention of VAP in critically ill ICU patients: an updated systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized control trials. J Intensive Care, 2020, 8: 81. |
69. | Su M, Jia Y, Li Y, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Respir Care, 2020, 65(5): 673-685. |
70. | Zhao J, Li LQ, Chen CY, et al. Do probiotics help prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients? A systematic review with Meta-analysis. ERJ Open Res, 2021, 7(1): 00302-2020. |
71. | Johnstone J, Meade M, Lauzier F, et al. Effect of probiotics on incident ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2021, 326(11): 1024-1033. |
72. | Lherm T, Monet C, Nougière B, et al. Seven cases of fungemia with Saccharomyces boulardii in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med, 2002, 28(6): 797-801. |
73. | Muñoz P, Bouza E, Cuenca-Estrella M, et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia: an emerging infectious disease. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1625-1634. |
74. | Salminen MK, Rautelin H, Tynkkynen S, et al. Lactobacillus bacteremia, clinical significance, and patient outcome, with special focus on probiotic L. rhamnosus GG. Clin Infect Dis, 2004, 38(1): 62-69. |
75. | Cassone M, Serra P, Mondello F, et al. Outbreak of Saccharomyces cerevisiae subtype boulardii fungemia in patients neighboring those treated with a probiotic preparation of the organism. J Clin Microbiol, 2003, 41(11): 5340-5343. |
76. | Graf C, Gavazzi G. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia in an immunocompromised patient not treated with Saccharomyces boulardii preparation. J Infect, 2007, 54(3): 310-311. |
77. | Yelin I, Flett KB, Merakou C, et al. Genomic and epidemiological evidence of bacterial transmission from probiotic capsule to blood in ICU patients. Nat Med, 2019, 25(11): 1728-1732. |
78. | Kara I, Yıldırım F, Özgen Ö, et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia after probiotic treatment in an intensive care unit patient. J Mycol Med, 2018, 28(1): 218-221. |
79. | Lorente L, Lecuona M, Jiménez A, et al. Influence of an endotracheal tube with polyurethane cuff and subglottic secretion drainage on pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2007, 176(11): 1079-1083. |
80. | Poelaert J, Depuydt P, De Wolf A, et al. Polyurethane cuffed endotracheal tubes to prevent early postoperative pneumonia after cardiac surgery: a pilot study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 2008, 135(4): 771-776. |
81. | Philippart F, Gaudry S, Quinquis L, et al. Randomized intubation with polyurethane or conical cuffs to prevent pneumonia in ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2015, 191(6): 637-645. |
82. | Saito M, Maruyama K, Mihara T, et al. Comparison of polyurethane tracheal tube cuffs and conventional polyvinyl chloride tube cuff for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review with Meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore), 2021, 100(9): e24906. |
83. | Maertens B, Blot K, Blot S. Prevention of ventilator-associated and early postoperative pneumonia through tapered endotracheal tube cuffs: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(2): 316-323. |
84. | Valencia M, Ferrer M, Farre R, et al. Automatic control of tracheal tube cuff pressure in ventilated patients in semirecumbent position: a randomized trial. Crit Care Med, 2007, 35(6): 1543-1549. |
85. | Nseir S, Zerimech F, Fournier C, et al. Continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure and microaspiration of gastric contents in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 184(9): 1041-1047. |
86. | Sevdi MS, Demirgan S, Erkalp K, et al. Continuous endotracheal tube cuff pressure control decreases incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Invest Surg, 2022, 35(3): 525-530. |
87. | Dauvergne JE, Geffray AL, Asehnoune K, et al. Automatic regulation of the endotracheal tube cuff pressure with a portable elastomeric device. A randomised controlled study. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med, 2020, 39(3): 435-441. |
88. | Dat VQ, Minh Yen L, Thi Loan H, et al. Effectiveness of continuous endotracheal cuff pressure control for the prevention of ventilator-associated respiratory infections: an open-label randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis, 2022, 74(10): 1795-1803. |
89. | Marjanovic N, Boisson M, Asehnoune K, et al. Continuous pneumatic regulation of tracheal cuff pressure to decrease ventilator-associated pneumonia in trauma patients who were mechanically ventilated: the AGATE multicenter randomized controlled study. Chest, 2021, 160(2): 499-508. |
90. | Letvin A, Kremer P, Silver PC, et al. Frequent versus infrequent monitoring of endotracheal tube cuff pressures. Respir Care, 2018, 63(5): 495-501. |
91. | Aeppli N, Lindauer B, Steurer MP, et al. Endotracheal tube cuff pressure changes during manual cuff pressure control manoeuvres: an in-vitro assessment. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 2019, 63(1): 55-60. |
92. | Kollef MH, Afessa B, Anzueto A, et al. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA, 2008, 300(7): 805-813. |
93. | Klompas M. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and patient outcomes in ventilator-associated pneumonia. JAMA, 2008, 300(22): 2605. |
94. | Delaney A, Gray H, Laupland KB, et al. Kinetic bed therapy to prevent nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care, 2006, 10(3): R70. |
95. | Ayzac L, Girard R, Baboi L, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in ARDS patients: the impact of prone positioning. A secondary analysis of the PROSEVA trial. Intensive Care Med, 2016, 42(5): 871-878. |
96. | Dupont H, Depuydt P, Abroug F. Prone position acute respiratory distress syndrome patients: less prone to ventilator associated pneumonia?. Intensive Care Med, 2016, 42(5): 937-939. |
97. | Munshi L, Del Sorbo L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Prone position for acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and Meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2017, 14(Suppl 4): S280-S288. |
98. | Boonyasiri A, Thaisiam P, Permpikul C, et al. Effectiveness of chlorhexidine wipes for the prevention of multidrug-resistant bacterial colonization and hospital-acquired infections in intensive care unit patients: a randomized trial in Thailand. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2016, 37(3): 245-253. |
99. | Pallotto C, Fiorio M, De Angelis V, et al. Daily bathing with 4% chlorhexidine gluconate in intensive care settings: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2019, 25(6): 705-710. |
100. | Swan JT, Ashton CM, Bui LN, et al. Effect of chlorhexidine bathing every other day on prevention of hospital-acquired infections in the surgical ICU: a single-center, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med, 2016, 44(10): 1822-1832. |
101. | Frost SA, Hou YC, Lombardo L, et al. Evidence for the effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: a trial sequential Meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis, 2018, 18(1): 679. |
102. | Barbateskovic M, Marker S, Granholm A, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors or histamin-2 receptor antagonists in adult intensive care patients: a systematic review with Meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2019, 45(2): 143-158. |
103. | Reynolds PM, MacLaren R. Re-evaluating the utility of stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill patient: a clinical scenario-based Meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy, 2019, 39(3): 408-420. |
104. | Marik PE, Vasu T, Hirani A, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2010, 38(11): 2222-2228. |
105. | Alhazzani W, Alenezi F, Jaeschke RZ, et al. Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(3): 693-705. |
106. | Deliwala SS, Hamid K, Goyal H, et al. Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine-2-receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol, 2022, 56(3): 204-217. |
107. | Krag M, Marker S, Perner A, et al. Pantoprazole in patients at risk for gastrointestinal bleeding in the ICU. N Engl J Med, 2018, 379(23): 2199-2208. |
108. | Reignier J, Mercier E, Gouge AL, et al. Effect of not monitoring residual gastric volume on risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults receiving mechanical ventilation and early enteral feeding a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2013, 309(3): 249-256. |
109. | Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G, et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med, 2011, 365(6): 506-517. |
110. | Vonberg RP, Eckmanns T, Welte T, et al. Impact of the suctioning system (open vs. closed) on the incidence of ventilation-associated pneumonia:Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Intensive Care Med, 2006, 32(9): 1329-1335. |
111. | Jongerden IP, Rovers MM, Grypdonck MH, et al. Open and closed endotracheal suction systems in mechanically ventilated intensive care patients: a Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2007, 35(1): 260-270. |
112. | Siempos II, Vardakas KZ, Falagas ME. Closed tracheal suction systems for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Br J Anaesth, 2008, 100(3): 299-306. |
113. | Jongerden IP, Buiting AG, Leverstein-van Hall MA, et al. Effect of open and closed endotracheal suctioning on cross-transmission with gram-negative bacteria: a prospective crossover study. Crit Care Med, 2011, 39(6): 1313-1321. |
- 1. 朱仕超, 尹维佳, 宗志勇, 等. 呼吸机相关性肺炎定义和判断标准研究进展. 中华医院感染学杂志, 2016, 26(23): 5517-5520.
- 2. Papazian L, Klompas M, Luyt CE. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med, 2020, 46(5): 888-906.
- 3. Zilberberg MD, Nathanson BH, Puzniak LA, et al. Descriptive epidemiology and outcomes of nonventilated hospital-acquired, ventilated hospital-acquired, and ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia in the United States, 2012-2019. Crit Care Med, 2022, 50(3): 460-468.
- 4. Klompas M, Branson R, Cawcutt K, et al. Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia, ventilator-associated events, and nonventilator hospital-acquired pneumonia in acute-care hospitals: 2022 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2022, 43(6): 687-713.
- 5. 莫丽勤, 曾云云, 秦宗泉, 等. 经鼻高流量氧疗在临床中的应用研究进展. 微创医学, 2020, 15(6): 791-794.
- 6. 秦志强. 经鼻高流量氧疗治疗急性呼吸衰竭的参数设置. 中国临床新医学, 2021, 14(4): 350-355.
- 7. 李正东, 詹庆元. 经鼻高流量氧疗. 中国临床新医学, 2019, 12(1): 5-9.
- 8. 高敏, 韩小彤, 文辉, 等. 经鼻高流量氧疗在成人呼吸衰竭患者中的应用进展. 医学综述, 2017, 23(22): 4468-4472.
- 9. Rochwerg B, Granton D, Wang DX, et al. High flow nasal cannula compared with conventional oxygen therapy for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2019, 45(5): 563-572.
- 10. Granton D, Chaudhuri D, Wang D, et al. High-flow nasal cannula compared with conventional oxygen therapy or noninvasive ventilation immediately postextubation: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2020, 48(11): e1129-e1136.
- 11. Chaudhuri D, Granton D, Wang DX, et al. High-flow nasal cannula in the immediate postoperative period: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Chest, 2020, 158(5): 1934-1946.
- 12. Yasuda H, Okano H, Mayumi T, et al. Post-extubation oxygenation strategies in acute respiratory failure: a systematic review and network Meta-analysis. Crit Care, 2021, 25(1): 135.
- 13. Frat JP, Thille AW, Mercat A, et al. High-flow oxygen through nasal cannula in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. N Engl J Med, 2015, 372(23): 2185-2196.
- 14. Osadnik CR, Tee VS, Carson-Chahhoud KV, et al. Non-invasive ventilation for the management of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure due to exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2017, 7(7): CD004104.
- 15. Xu XP, Zhang XC, Hu SL, et al. Noninvasive ventilation in acute hypoxemic nonhypercapnic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2017, 45(7): e727-e733.
- 16. David-João PG, Guedes MH, Réa-Neto Á, et al. Noninvasive ventilation in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. J Crit Care, 2019, 49: 84-91.
- 17. Ferreyro BL, Angriman F, Munshi L, et al. Association of noninvasive oxygenation strategies with all-cause mortality in adults with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA, 2020, 324(1): 57-67.
- 18. Vaschetto R, Pecere A, Perkins GD, et al. Effects of early extubation followed by noninvasive ventilation versus standard extubation on the duration of invasive mechanical ventilation in hypoxemic non-hypercapnic patients: a systematic review and individual patient data Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care, 2021, 25(1): 189.
- 19. Shehabi Y, Bellomo R, Kadiman S, et al. Sedation intensity in the first 48 hours of mechanical ventilation and 180-day mortality: a multinational prospective longitudinal cohort study. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(6): 850-859.
- 20. Devlin JW, Skrobik Y, Gélinas C, et al. Executive summary: clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of pain, agitation/sedation, delirium, immobility, and sleep disruption in adult patients in the ICU. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(9): 1532-1548.
- 21. Fraser GL, Devlin JW, Worby CP, et al. Benzodiazepine versus nonbenzodiazepine-based sedation for mechanically ventilated, critically ill adults: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized trials. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(Suppl 1): S30-S38.
- 22. Hughes CG, Mailloux PT, Devlin JW, et al. Dexmedetomidine or propofol for sedation in mechanically ventilated adults with sepsis. N Engl J Med, 2021, 384(15): 1424-1436.
- 23. Lewis K, Piticaru J, Chaudhuri D, et al. Safety and efficacy of dexmedetomidine in acutely ill adults requiring noninvasive ventilation: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized trials. Chest, 2021, 159(6): 2274-2288.
- 24. Ouellette DR, Patel S, Girard TD, et al. Liberation from mechanical ventilation in critically ill adults: an official American College of Chest Physicians/American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline: inspiratory pressure augmentation during spontaneous breathing trials, protocols minimizing sedation, and noninvasive ventilation immediately after extubation. Chest, 2017, 151(1): 166-180.
- 25. Strøm T, Martinussen T, Toft P. A protocol of no sedation for critically ill patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a randomised trial. Lancet, 2010, 375(9713): 475-480.
- 26. Olsen HT, Nedergaard HK, Toft P. Nonsedation or light sedation in critically ill, mechanically ventilated patients. Reply. N Engl J Med, 2020, 382(26): e107.
- 27. Girard TD, Alhazzani W, Kress JP, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians Clinical Practice guideline: liberation from mechanical ventilation in critically ill adults. rehabilitation protocols, ventilator liberation protocols, and cuff leak tests. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2017, 195(1): 120-133.
- 28. Ely EW, Baker AM, Dunagan DP, et al. Effect on the duration of mechanical ventilation of identifying patients capable of breathing spontaneously. N Engl J Med, 1996, 335(25): 1864-1869.
- 29. Kollef MH, Shapiro SD, Silver P, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of protocol-directed versus physician-directed weaning from mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med, 1997, 25(4): 567-574.
- 30. Marelich GP, Murin S, Battistella F, et al. Protocol weaning of mechanical ventilation in medical and surgical patients by respiratory care practitioners and nurses: effect on weaning time and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest, 2000, 118(2): 459-467.
- 31. Lellouche F, Mancebo J, Jolliet P, et al. A multicenter randomized trial of computer-driven protocolized weaning from mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2006, 174(8): 894-900.
- 32. Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD, et al. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (awakening and breathing controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 2008, 371(9607): 126-134.
- 33. Hsieh SJ, Otusanya O, Gershengorn HB, et al. Staged implementation of awakening and breathing, coordination, delirium monitoring and management, and early mobilization bundle improves patient outcomes and reduces hospital costs. Crit Care Med, 2019, 47(7): 885-893.
- 34. Zhang L, Hu W, Cai Z, et al. Early mobilization of critically ill patients in the intensive care unit: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2019, 14(10): e0223185.
- 35. Waldauf P, Jiroutková K, Krajčová A, et al. Effects of rehabilitation interventions on clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care Med, 2020, 48(7): 1055-1065.
- 36. Wang J, Ren D, Liu Y, et al. Effects of early mobilization on the prognosis of critically ill patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud, 2020, 110: 103708.
- 37. Zang K, Chen B, Wang M, et al. The effect of early mobilization in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis. Nurs Crit Care, 2020, 25(6): 360-367.
- 38. Lord RK, Mayhew CR, Korupolu R, et al. ICU early physical rehabilitation programs: financial modeling of cost savings. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(3): 717-724.
- 39. Wang L, Li X, Yang Z, et al. Semi-recumbent position versus supine position for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults requiring mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 2016(1): CD009946.
- 40. Price R, MacLennan G, Glen J, et al. Selective digestive or oropharyngeal decontamination and topical oropharyngeal chlorhexidine for prevention of death in general intensive care: systematic review and network Meta-analysis. BMJ, 2014, 348: g2197.
- 41. Klompas M, Speck K, Howell MD, et al. Reappraisal of routine oral care with chlorhexidine gluconate for patients receiving mechanical ventilation: systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med, 2014, 174(5): 751-761.
- 42. Deschepper M, Waegeman W, Eeckloo K, et al. Effects of chlorhexidine gluconate oral care on hospital mortality: a hospital-wide, observational cohort study. Intensive Care Med, 2018, 44(7): 1017-1026.
- 43. Zhao T, Wu X, Zhang Q, et al. Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2020, 12(12): CD008367.
- 44. Sozkes S, Sozkes S. Use of toothbrushing in conjunction with chlorhexidine for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: a random-effect Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Dent Hyg, 2021: 23.
- 45. Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, et al. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit. Clin Nutr, 2019, 38(1): 48-79.
- 46. Han J, Liu Y. Effect of ventilator circuit changes on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Respir Care, 2010, 55(4): 467-474.
- 47. Ling ML, Ching P, Widitaputra A, et al. APSIC guidelines for disinfection and sterilization of instruments in health care facilities. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control, 2018, 7: 25.
- 48. Bos LD, Stips C, Schouten LR, et al. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract halves the prevalence of ventilator-associated pneumonia compared to selective oral decontamination. Intensive Care Med, 2017, 43(10): 1535-1537.
- 49. Plantinga NL, de Smet AMGA, Oostdijk EAN, et al. Selective digestive and oropharyngeal decontamination in medical and surgical ICU patients: individual patient data Meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2018, 24(5): 505-513.
- 50. Wittekamp BH, Plantinga NL, Cooper BS, et al. Decontamination strategies and bloodstream infections with antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in ventilated patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2018, 320(20): 2087-2098.
- 51. Minozzi S, Pifferi S, Brazzi L, et al. Topical antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce respiratory tract infections and mortality in adults receiving mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2021, 1(1): CD000022.
- 52. Torres A, Niederman MS, Chastre J, et al. International ERS/ESICM/ESCMID/ALAT guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia: guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP)/ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) of the European Respiratory Society (ERS), European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM), European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) and Asociación Latinoamericana del Tórax (ALAT). Eur Respir J, 2017, 50(3): 1700582.
- 53. Pozuelo-Carrascosa DP, Herráiz-Adillo Á, Alvarez-Bueno C, et al. Subglottic secretion drainage for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: an overview of systematic reviews and an updated Meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev, 2020, 29(155): 190107.
- 54. Damas P, Frippiat F, Ancion A, et al. Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia and ventilator-associated conditions: a randomized controlled trial with subglottic secretion suctioning. Crit Care Med, 2015, 43(1): 22-30.
- 55. Bouza E, Pérez MJ, Muñoz P, et al. Continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in the postoperative period of major heart surgery. Chest, 2008, 134(5): 938-946.
- 56. Lacherade JC, De Jonghe B, Guezennec P, et al. Intermittent subglottic secretion drainage and ventilator-associated pneumonia: a multicenter trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2010, 182(7): 910-917.
- 57. Frost SA, Azeem A, Alexandrou E, et al. Subglottic secretion drainage for preventing ventilator associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis. Aust Crit Care, 2013, 26(4): 180-188.
- 58. Chorath K, Hoang A, Rajasekaran K, et al. Association of early vs late tracheostomy placement with pneumonia and ventilator days in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 2021, 147(5): 450-459.
- 59. Ferguson ND. Tracheostomy for ventilated patients-not when, but in whom?. Crit Care Med, 2005, 33(11): 2695-2696.
- 60. Alkhawaja S, Martin C, Butler RJ, et al. Post-pyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preventing pneumonia and improving nutritional outcomes in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2015, 2015(8): CD008875.
- 61. Liu Y, Wang Y, Zhang B, et al. Gastric-tube versus post-pyloric feeding in critical patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of pulmonary aspiration- and nutrition-related outcomes. Eur J Clin Nutr, 2021, 75(9): 1337-1348.
- 62. McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically ill patient: consensus statement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2002, 26(Suppl 6): S80-S85.
- 63. McClave SA, Taylor BE, Martindale RG, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, 2016, 40(2): 159-211.
- 64. Hua F, Xie H, Worthington HV, et al. Oral hygiene care for critically ill patients to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 10(10): CD008367.
- 65. Dale CM, Rose L, Carbone S, et al. Effect of oral chlorhexidine de-adoption and implementation of an oral care bundle on mortality for mechanically ventilated patients in the intensive care unit (CHORAL): a multi-center stepped wedge cluster-randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med, 2021, 47(11): 1295-1302.
- 66. Lee S, Lighvan NL, McCredie V, et al. Chlorhexidine-related mortality rate in critically ill subjects in intensive care units: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Respir Care, 2019, 64(3): 337-349.
- 67. Ji T, Zhu X, Shang F, et al. Preventive effect of probiotics on ventilator-associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis of 2428 patients. Ann Pharmacother, 2021, 55(8): 949-962.
- 68. Batra P, Soni KD, Mathur P. Efficacy of probiotics in the prevention of VAP in critically ill ICU patients: an updated systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized control trials. J Intensive Care, 2020, 8: 81.
- 69. Su M, Jia Y, Li Y, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Respir Care, 2020, 65(5): 673-685.
- 70. Zhao J, Li LQ, Chen CY, et al. Do probiotics help prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients? A systematic review with Meta-analysis. ERJ Open Res, 2021, 7(1): 00302-2020.
- 71. Johnstone J, Meade M, Lauzier F, et al. Effect of probiotics on incident ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 2021, 326(11): 1024-1033.
- 72. Lherm T, Monet C, Nougière B, et al. Seven cases of fungemia with Saccharomyces boulardii in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med, 2002, 28(6): 797-801.
- 73. Muñoz P, Bouza E, Cuenca-Estrella M, et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia: an emerging infectious disease. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1625-1634.
- 74. Salminen MK, Rautelin H, Tynkkynen S, et al. Lactobacillus bacteremia, clinical significance, and patient outcome, with special focus on probiotic L. rhamnosus GG. Clin Infect Dis, 2004, 38(1): 62-69.
- 75. Cassone M, Serra P, Mondello F, et al. Outbreak of Saccharomyces cerevisiae subtype boulardii fungemia in patients neighboring those treated with a probiotic preparation of the organism. J Clin Microbiol, 2003, 41(11): 5340-5343.
- 76. Graf C, Gavazzi G. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia in an immunocompromised patient not treated with Saccharomyces boulardii preparation. J Infect, 2007, 54(3): 310-311.
- 77. Yelin I, Flett KB, Merakou C, et al. Genomic and epidemiological evidence of bacterial transmission from probiotic capsule to blood in ICU patients. Nat Med, 2019, 25(11): 1728-1732.
- 78. Kara I, Yıldırım F, Özgen Ö, et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia after probiotic treatment in an intensive care unit patient. J Mycol Med, 2018, 28(1): 218-221.
- 79. Lorente L, Lecuona M, Jiménez A, et al. Influence of an endotracheal tube with polyurethane cuff and subglottic secretion drainage on pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2007, 176(11): 1079-1083.
- 80. Poelaert J, Depuydt P, De Wolf A, et al. Polyurethane cuffed endotracheal tubes to prevent early postoperative pneumonia after cardiac surgery: a pilot study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 2008, 135(4): 771-776.
- 81. Philippart F, Gaudry S, Quinquis L, et al. Randomized intubation with polyurethane or conical cuffs to prevent pneumonia in ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2015, 191(6): 637-645.
- 82. Saito M, Maruyama K, Mihara T, et al. Comparison of polyurethane tracheal tube cuffs and conventional polyvinyl chloride tube cuff for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review with Meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore), 2021, 100(9): e24906.
- 83. Maertens B, Blot K, Blot S. Prevention of ventilator-associated and early postoperative pneumonia through tapered endotracheal tube cuffs: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care Med, 2018, 46(2): 316-323.
- 84. Valencia M, Ferrer M, Farre R, et al. Automatic control of tracheal tube cuff pressure in ventilated patients in semirecumbent position: a randomized trial. Crit Care Med, 2007, 35(6): 1543-1549.
- 85. Nseir S, Zerimech F, Fournier C, et al. Continuous control of tracheal cuff pressure and microaspiration of gastric contents in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 184(9): 1041-1047.
- 86. Sevdi MS, Demirgan S, Erkalp K, et al. Continuous endotracheal tube cuff pressure control decreases incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Invest Surg, 2022, 35(3): 525-530.
- 87. Dauvergne JE, Geffray AL, Asehnoune K, et al. Automatic regulation of the endotracheal tube cuff pressure with a portable elastomeric device. A randomised controlled study. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med, 2020, 39(3): 435-441.
- 88. Dat VQ, Minh Yen L, Thi Loan H, et al. Effectiveness of continuous endotracheal cuff pressure control for the prevention of ventilator-associated respiratory infections: an open-label randomized, controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis, 2022, 74(10): 1795-1803.
- 89. Marjanovic N, Boisson M, Asehnoune K, et al. Continuous pneumatic regulation of tracheal cuff pressure to decrease ventilator-associated pneumonia in trauma patients who were mechanically ventilated: the AGATE multicenter randomized controlled study. Chest, 2021, 160(2): 499-508.
- 90. Letvin A, Kremer P, Silver PC, et al. Frequent versus infrequent monitoring of endotracheal tube cuff pressures. Respir Care, 2018, 63(5): 495-501.
- 91. Aeppli N, Lindauer B, Steurer MP, et al. Endotracheal tube cuff pressure changes during manual cuff pressure control manoeuvres: an in-vitro assessment. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 2019, 63(1): 55-60.
- 92. Kollef MH, Afessa B, Anzueto A, et al. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia: the NASCENT randomized trial. JAMA, 2008, 300(7): 805-813.
- 93. Klompas M. Silver-coated endotracheal tubes and patient outcomes in ventilator-associated pneumonia. JAMA, 2008, 300(22): 2605.
- 94. Delaney A, Gray H, Laupland KB, et al. Kinetic bed therapy to prevent nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care, 2006, 10(3): R70.
- 95. Ayzac L, Girard R, Baboi L, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia in ARDS patients: the impact of prone positioning. A secondary analysis of the PROSEVA trial. Intensive Care Med, 2016, 42(5): 871-878.
- 96. Dupont H, Depuydt P, Abroug F. Prone position acute respiratory distress syndrome patients: less prone to ventilator associated pneumonia?. Intensive Care Med, 2016, 42(5): 937-939.
- 97. Munshi L, Del Sorbo L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Prone position for acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and Meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc, 2017, 14(Suppl 4): S280-S288.
- 98. Boonyasiri A, Thaisiam P, Permpikul C, et al. Effectiveness of chlorhexidine wipes for the prevention of multidrug-resistant bacterial colonization and hospital-acquired infections in intensive care unit patients: a randomized trial in Thailand. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 2016, 37(3): 245-253.
- 99. Pallotto C, Fiorio M, De Angelis V, et al. Daily bathing with 4% chlorhexidine gluconate in intensive care settings: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2019, 25(6): 705-710.
- 100. Swan JT, Ashton CM, Bui LN, et al. Effect of chlorhexidine bathing every other day on prevention of hospital-acquired infections in the surgical ICU: a single-center, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med, 2016, 44(10): 1822-1832.
- 101. Frost SA, Hou YC, Lombardo L, et al. Evidence for the effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: a trial sequential Meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis, 2018, 18(1): 679.
- 102. Barbateskovic M, Marker S, Granholm A, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors or histamin-2 receptor antagonists in adult intensive care patients: a systematic review with Meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Med, 2019, 45(2): 143-158.
- 103. Reynolds PM, MacLaren R. Re-evaluating the utility of stress ulcer prophylaxis in the critically ill patient: a clinical scenario-based Meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy, 2019, 39(3): 408-420.
- 104. Marik PE, Vasu T, Hirani A, et al. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in the new millennium: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2010, 38(11): 2222-2228.
- 105. Alhazzani W, Alenezi F, Jaeschke RZ, et al. Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine 2 receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41(3): 693-705.
- 106. Deliwala SS, Hamid K, Goyal H, et al. Proton pump inhibitors versus histamine-2-receptor antagonists for stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: a Meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol, 2022, 56(3): 204-217.
- 107. Krag M, Marker S, Perner A, et al. Pantoprazole in patients at risk for gastrointestinal bleeding in the ICU. N Engl J Med, 2018, 379(23): 2199-2208.
- 108. Reignier J, Mercier E, Gouge AL, et al. Effect of not monitoring residual gastric volume on risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults receiving mechanical ventilation and early enteral feeding a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 2013, 309(3): 249-256.
- 109. Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G, et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med, 2011, 365(6): 506-517.
- 110. Vonberg RP, Eckmanns T, Welte T, et al. Impact of the suctioning system (open vs. closed) on the incidence of ventilation-associated pneumonia:Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Intensive Care Med, 2006, 32(9): 1329-1335.
- 111. Jongerden IP, Rovers MM, Grypdonck MH, et al. Open and closed endotracheal suction systems in mechanically ventilated intensive care patients: a Meta-analysis. Crit Care Med, 2007, 35(1): 260-270.
- 112. Siempos II, Vardakas KZ, Falagas ME. Closed tracheal suction systems for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Br J Anaesth, 2008, 100(3): 299-306.
- 113. Jongerden IP, Buiting AG, Leverstein-van Hall MA, et al. Effect of open and closed endotracheal suctioning on cross-transmission with gram-negative bacteria: a prospective crossover study. Crit Care Med, 2011, 39(6): 1313-1321.