- 1. Department of Hepatobiliary and Hydatid Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, P. R. China;
- 2. State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Management of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi 830054, P. R. China;
Citation: WANG Zongding, WEN Hao. The role of the autonomic nervous system in liver. CHINESE JOURNAL OF BASES AND CLINICS IN GENERAL SURGERY, 2021, 28(4): 537-543. doi: 10.7507/1007-9424.202008016 Copy
1. | McCuskey RS. Anatomy of efferent hepatic nerves. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 821-826. |
2. | Rogers RC, Hermann GE. Central connections of the hepatic branch of the vagus nerve: a horseradish peroxidase histochemical study. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1983, 7(2): 165-174. |
3. | Norgren R, Smith GP. Central distribution of subdiaphragmatic vagal branches in the rat. J Comp Neurol, 1988, 273(2): 207-223. |
4. | Zhang X, Renehan WE, Fogel R. Vagal innervation of the rat duodenum. J Auton Nerv Syst, 2000, 79(1): 8-18. |
5. | Berthoud HR, Carlson NR, Powley TL. Topography of efferent vagal innervation of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Am J Physiol, 1991, 260(1 Pt 2): R200-R207. |
6. | Berthoud HR, Kressel M, Neuhuber WL. An anterograde tracing study of the vagal innervation of rat liver, portal vein and biliary system. Anat Embryol (Berl), 1992, 186(5): 431-442. |
7. | Barja F, Mathison R. Sensory innervation of the rat portal vein and the hepatic artery. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1984, 10(2): 117-125. |
8. | Akiyoshi H, Gonda T, Terada T. A comparative histochemical and immunohistochemical study of aminergic, cholinergic and peptidergic innervation in rat, hamster, guinea pig, dog and human livers. Liver, 1998, 18(5): 352-359. |
9. | Fukuda Y, Imoto M, Koyama Y, et al. Demonstration of noradrenaline-immunoreactive nerve fibres in the liver. J Int Med Res, 1996, 24(6): 466-472. |
10. | Lee JA, Ahmed Q, Hines JE, et al. Disappearance of hepatic parenchymal nerves in human liver cirrhosis. Gut, 1992, 33(1): 87-91. |
11. | Nobin A, Baumgarten HG, Falck B, et al. Organization of the sympathetic innervation in liver tissue from monkey and man. Cell Tissue Res, 1978, 195(3): 371-380. |
12. | Berthoud HR, Kressel M, Neuhuber WL. Vagal afferent innervation of rat abdominal paraganglia as revealed by anterograde DiI-tracing and confocal microscopy. Acta Anat (Basel), 1995, 152(2): 127-132. |
13. | Kandilis AN, Papadopoulou IP, Koskinas J, et al. Liver innervation and hepatic function: new insights. J Surg Res, 2015, 194(2): 511-519. |
14. | Gardemann A, Püschel GP, Jungermann K. Nervous control of liver metabolism and hemodynamics. Eur J Biochem, 1992, 207(2): 399-411. |
15. | Nogueiras R, López M, Diéguez C. Regulation of lipid metabolism by energy availability: a role for the central nervous system. Obes Rev, 2010, 11(3): 185-201. |
16. | Yi CX, la Fleur SE, Fliers E, et al. The role of the autonomic nervous liver innervation in the control of energy metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta, 2010, 1802(4): 416-431. |
17. | Püschel GP. Control of hepatocyte metabolism by sympathetic and parasympathetic hepatic nerves. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 854-867. |
18. | Xue C, Aspelund G, Sritharan KC, et al. Isolated hepatic cholinergic denervation impairs glucose and glycogen metabolism. J Surg Res, 2000, 90(1): 19-25. |
19. | Latour MG, Lautt WW. The hepatic vagus nerve in the control of insulin sensitivity in the rat. Auton Neurosci, 2002, 95(1-2): 125-130. |
20. | Charpentier J, Waget A, Klopp P, et al. Lixisenatide requires a functional gut-vagus nerve-brain axis to trigger insulin secretion in controls and type 2 diabetic mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 2018, 315(5): 671-684. |
21. | Lee KC, Miller RE. The hepatic vagus nerve and the neural regulation of insulin secretion. Endocrinology, 1985, 117(1): 307-314. |
22. | Stümpel F, Kucera T, Bazotte R, et al. Loss of regulation by sympathetic hepatic nerves of liver metabolism and haemodynamics in chronically streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Diabetologia, 1996, 39(2): 161-165. |
23. | Tanaka K, Inoue S, Nagase H, et al. Modulation of arginine-induced insulin and glucagon secretion by the hepatic vagus nerve in the rat: effects of celiac vagotomy and administration of atropine. Endocrinology, 1990, 127(4): 2017-2023. |
24. | Klieverik LP, Janssen SF, van Riel A, et al. Thyroid hormone modulates glucose production via a sympathetic pathway from the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus to the liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2009, 106(14): 5966-5971. |
25. | Ando H, Gotoh K, Fujiwara K, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 reduces pancreatic β-cell mass through hypothalamic neural pathways in high-fat diet-induced obese rats. Sci Rep, 2017, 7(1): 5578. |
26. | Liu J, Bisschop PH, Eggels L, et al. Intrahypothalamic estradiol regulates glucose metabolism via the sympathetic nervous system in female rats. Diabetes, 2013, 62(2): 435-443. |
27. | Rojas JM, Bruinstroop E, Printz RL, et al. Central nervous system neuropeptide Y regulates mediators of hepatic phospholipid remodeling and very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride secretion via sympathetic innervation. Mol Metab, 2015, 4(3): 210-221. |
28. | Bruinstroop E, Pei L, Ackermans MT, et al. Hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) controls hepatic VLDL-triglyceride secretion in rats via the sympathetic nervous system. Diabetes, 2012, 61(5): 1043-1050. |
29. | Kimura I, Inoue D, Maeda T, et al. Short-chain fatty acids and ketones directly regulate sympathetic nervous system via G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2011, 108(19): 8030-8035. |
30. | Xiao F, Guo Y, Deng J, et al. Hepatic c-Jun regulates glucose metabolism via FGF21 and modulates body temperature through the neural signals. Mol Metab, 2019, 20: 138-148. |
31. | Kurosawa M, Unno T, Aikawa Y, et al. Neural regulation of hepatic blood flow in rats: an in vivo study. Neurosci Lett, 2002, 321(3): 145-148. |
32. | Hsu CT, Schichijo K, Ito M, et al. The effect of chemical sympathectomy on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1993, 43(2): 91-96. |
33. | Hsu CT. The role of the sympathetic nervous system in promoting liver cirrhosis induced by carbon tetrachloride, using the essential hypertensive animal (SHR). J Auton Nerv Syst, 1992, 37(3): 163-173. |
34. | Wheatley AM, Stuart ET, Zhao D, et al. Effect of orthotopic transplantation and chemical denervation of the liver on hepatic hemodynamics in the rat. J Hepatol, 1993, 19(3): 442-450. |
35. | van Westerloo DJ, Giebelen IA, Florquin S, et al. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway regulates the host response during septic peritonitis. J Infect Dis, 2005, 191(12): 2138-2148. |
36. | Li Y, Xu Z, Yu Y, et al. The vagus nerve attenuates fulminant hepatitis by activating the Src kinase in Kuppfer cells. Scand J Immunol, 2014, 79(2): 105-112. |
37. | Borovikova LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature, 2000, 405(6785): 458-462. |
38. | Abdel-Salam OM, Abdel-Rahman RF, Sleem AA, et al. Effects of afferent and efferent denervation of vagal nerve on endotoxin-induced oxidative stress in rats. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2013, 120(12): 1673-1688. |
39. | Xia H, Liu Z, Liang W, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation alleviates hepatic ischemia and reperfusion injury by regulating glutathione production and transformation. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2020, 2020: 1079129. |
40. | Lin JC, Peng YJ, Wang SY, et al. Role of the sympathetic nervous system in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity and systemic inflammation. PLoS One, 2015, 10(3): e0121365. |
41. | Zhu H, Guo YZ, Zhang J, et al. Donor denervation and elimination of Kupffer cells affect expression of P-selectin and ICAM-1 in liver graft. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int, 2007, 6(4): 379-382. |
42. | Worlicek M, Knebel K, Linde HJ, et al. Splanchnic sympathectomy prevents translocation and spreading of E coli but not S aureus in liver cirrhosis. Gut, 2010, 59(8): 1127-1134. |
43. | Huang J, Wang Y, Jiang D, et al. The sympathetic-vagal balance against endotoxemia. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2010, 117(6): 729-735. |
44. | Hoover DB. Cholinergic modulation of the immune system presents new approaches for treating inflammation. Pharmacol Ther, 2017, 179: 1-16. |
45. | Henriksen JH, Møller S, Ring-Larsen H, et al. The sympathetic nervous system in liver disease. J Hepatol, 1998, 29(2): 328-341. |
46. | Oben JA, Roskams T, Yang S, et al. Hepatic fibrogenesis requires sympathetic neurotransmitters. Gut, 2004, 53(3): 438-445. |
47. | Hendrickse MT, Thuluvath PJ, Triger DR. Natural history of autonomic neuropathy in chronic liver disease. Lancet, 1992, 339(8807): 1462-1464. |
48. | Willett I, Esler M, Burke F, et al. Total and renal sympathetic nervous system activity in alcoholic cirrhosis. J Hepatol, 1985, 1(6): 639-648. |
49. | Henriksen JH, Ring-Larsen H, Kanstrup IL, et al. Splanchnic and renal elimination and release of catecholamines in cirrhosis. Evidence of enhanced sympathetic nervous activity in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Gut, 1984, 25(10): 1034-1043. |
50. | Hadengue A, Moreau R, Lee SS, et al. Liver hypermetabolism during alcohol withdrawal in humans. Role of sympathetic overactivity. Gastroenterology, 1988, 94(4): 1047-1052. |
51. | Bockx I, Verdrengh K, Vander Elst I, et al. High-frequency vagus nerve stimulation improves portal hypertension in cirrhotic rats. Gut, 2012, 61(4): 604-612. |
52. | Huan HB, Wen XD, Chen XJ, et al. Sympathetic nervous system promotes hepatocarcinogenesis by modulating inflammation through activation of alpha1-adrenergic receptors of Kupffer cells. Brain Behav Immun, 2017, 59: 118-134. |
53. | Hiramoto T, Yoshihara K, Asano Y, et al. Protective role of the hepatic vagus nerve against liver metastasis in mice. Neuroimmunomodulation, 2017, 24(6): 341-347. |
54. | Kamimura K, Inoue R, Nagoya T, et al. Autonomic nervous system network and liver regeneration. World J Gastroenterol, 2018, 24(15): 1616-1621. |
55. | Wang L, Zhu L, Wu K, et al. Mitochondrial general control of amino acid synthesis 5 like 1 regulates glutaminolysis, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity, and murine liver regeneration. Hepatology, 2020, 71(2): 643-657. |
56. | Kiba T. The role of the autonomic nervous system in liver regeneration and apoptosis—recent developments. Digestion, 2002, 66(2): 79-88. |
57. | Kiba T, Tanaka K, Endo O, et al. Role of vagus nerve in increased DNA synthesis after hypothalamic ventromedial lesions in rat liver. Am J Physiol, 1992, 262(3 Pt 1): G483-G487. |
58. | Cassiman D, Libbrecht L, Sinelli N, et al. The vagal nerve stimulates activation of the hepatic progenitor cell compartment via muscarinic acetylcholine receptor type 3. Am J Pathol, 2002, 161(2): 521-530. |
59. | Ikeda O, Ozaki M, Murata S, et al. Autonomic regulation of liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in mice. J Surg Res, 2009, 152(2): 218-223. |
60. | Izumi T, Imai J, Yamamoto J, et al. Vagus-macrophage-hepatocyte link promotes post-injury liver regeneration and whole-body survival through hepatic FoxM1 activation. Nat Commun, 2018, 9(1): 5300. |
61. | Inoue R, Kamimura K, Nagoya T, et al. Effect of a neural relay on liver regeneration in mice: activation of serotonin release from the gastrointestinal tract. FEBS Open Bio, 2018, 8(3): 449-460. |
62. | Oben JA, Diehl AM. Sympathetic nervous system regulation of liver repair. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 874-883. |
63. | Oben JA, Roskams T, Yang S, et al. Sympathetic nervous system inhibition increases hepatic progenitors and reduces liver injury. Hepatology, 2003, 38(3): 664-673. |
64. | Xia F, He Z, Li K, et al. Evaluation of the role of sympathetic denervation on hepatic function. Hepatol Res, 2006, 36(4): 259-264. |
65. | Chida Y, Sudo N, Takaki A, et al. The hepatic sympathetic nerve plays a critical role in preventing Fas induced liver injury in mice. Gut, 2005, 54(7): 994-1002. |
66. | Kandilis AN, Koskinas J, Vlachos I, et al. Liver regeneration: immunohistochemical study of intrinsic hepatic innervation after partial hepatectomy in rats. BMC Gastroenterol, 2014, 14: 202. |
67. | Tanimizu N, Ichinohe N, Mitaka T. Intrahepatic bile ducts guide establishment of the intrahepatic nerve network in developing and regenerating mouse liver. Development, 2018, 145(9): dev159095. |
68. | Shibata S. Neural regulation of the hepatic circadian rhythm. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 901-909. |
69. | Louis-Sylvestre J, Servant JM, Molimard R, et al. Effect of liver denervation on the feeding pattern of rats. Am J Physiol, 1980, 239(1): R66-R70. |
70. | Hayes MR, Kanoski SE, De Jonghe BC, et al. The common hepatic branch of the vagus is not required to mediate the glycemic and food intake suppressive effects of glucagon-like-peptide-1. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2011, 301(5): R1479-R1485. |
71. | Niijima A. Effects of taste stimulation on the efferent activity of the autonomic nerves in the rat. Brain Res Bull, 1991, 26(1): 165-167. |
- 1. McCuskey RS. Anatomy of efferent hepatic nerves. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 821-826.
- 2. Rogers RC, Hermann GE. Central connections of the hepatic branch of the vagus nerve: a horseradish peroxidase histochemical study. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1983, 7(2): 165-174.
- 3. Norgren R, Smith GP. Central distribution of subdiaphragmatic vagal branches in the rat. J Comp Neurol, 1988, 273(2): 207-223.
- 4. Zhang X, Renehan WE, Fogel R. Vagal innervation of the rat duodenum. J Auton Nerv Syst, 2000, 79(1): 8-18.
- 5. Berthoud HR, Carlson NR, Powley TL. Topography of efferent vagal innervation of the rat gastrointestinal tract. Am J Physiol, 1991, 260(1 Pt 2): R200-R207.
- 6. Berthoud HR, Kressel M, Neuhuber WL. An anterograde tracing study of the vagal innervation of rat liver, portal vein and biliary system. Anat Embryol (Berl), 1992, 186(5): 431-442.
- 7. Barja F, Mathison R. Sensory innervation of the rat portal vein and the hepatic artery. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1984, 10(2): 117-125.
- 8. Akiyoshi H, Gonda T, Terada T. A comparative histochemical and immunohistochemical study of aminergic, cholinergic and peptidergic innervation in rat, hamster, guinea pig, dog and human livers. Liver, 1998, 18(5): 352-359.
- 9. Fukuda Y, Imoto M, Koyama Y, et al. Demonstration of noradrenaline-immunoreactive nerve fibres in the liver. J Int Med Res, 1996, 24(6): 466-472.
- 10. Lee JA, Ahmed Q, Hines JE, et al. Disappearance of hepatic parenchymal nerves in human liver cirrhosis. Gut, 1992, 33(1): 87-91.
- 11. Nobin A, Baumgarten HG, Falck B, et al. Organization of the sympathetic innervation in liver tissue from monkey and man. Cell Tissue Res, 1978, 195(3): 371-380.
- 12. Berthoud HR, Kressel M, Neuhuber WL. Vagal afferent innervation of rat abdominal paraganglia as revealed by anterograde DiI-tracing and confocal microscopy. Acta Anat (Basel), 1995, 152(2): 127-132.
- 13. Kandilis AN, Papadopoulou IP, Koskinas J, et al. Liver innervation and hepatic function: new insights. J Surg Res, 2015, 194(2): 511-519.
- 14. Gardemann A, Püschel GP, Jungermann K. Nervous control of liver metabolism and hemodynamics. Eur J Biochem, 1992, 207(2): 399-411.
- 15. Nogueiras R, López M, Diéguez C. Regulation of lipid metabolism by energy availability: a role for the central nervous system. Obes Rev, 2010, 11(3): 185-201.
- 16. Yi CX, la Fleur SE, Fliers E, et al. The role of the autonomic nervous liver innervation in the control of energy metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta, 2010, 1802(4): 416-431.
- 17. Püschel GP. Control of hepatocyte metabolism by sympathetic and parasympathetic hepatic nerves. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 854-867.
- 18. Xue C, Aspelund G, Sritharan KC, et al. Isolated hepatic cholinergic denervation impairs glucose and glycogen metabolism. J Surg Res, 2000, 90(1): 19-25.
- 19. Latour MG, Lautt WW. The hepatic vagus nerve in the control of insulin sensitivity in the rat. Auton Neurosci, 2002, 95(1-2): 125-130.
- 20. Charpentier J, Waget A, Klopp P, et al. Lixisenatide requires a functional gut-vagus nerve-brain axis to trigger insulin secretion in controls and type 2 diabetic mice. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, 2018, 315(5): 671-684.
- 21. Lee KC, Miller RE. The hepatic vagus nerve and the neural regulation of insulin secretion. Endocrinology, 1985, 117(1): 307-314.
- 22. Stümpel F, Kucera T, Bazotte R, et al. Loss of regulation by sympathetic hepatic nerves of liver metabolism and haemodynamics in chronically streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Diabetologia, 1996, 39(2): 161-165.
- 23. Tanaka K, Inoue S, Nagase H, et al. Modulation of arginine-induced insulin and glucagon secretion by the hepatic vagus nerve in the rat: effects of celiac vagotomy and administration of atropine. Endocrinology, 1990, 127(4): 2017-2023.
- 24. Klieverik LP, Janssen SF, van Riel A, et al. Thyroid hormone modulates glucose production via a sympathetic pathway from the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus to the liver. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2009, 106(14): 5966-5971.
- 25. Ando H, Gotoh K, Fujiwara K, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 reduces pancreatic β-cell mass through hypothalamic neural pathways in high-fat diet-induced obese rats. Sci Rep, 2017, 7(1): 5578.
- 26. Liu J, Bisschop PH, Eggels L, et al. Intrahypothalamic estradiol regulates glucose metabolism via the sympathetic nervous system in female rats. Diabetes, 2013, 62(2): 435-443.
- 27. Rojas JM, Bruinstroop E, Printz RL, et al. Central nervous system neuropeptide Y regulates mediators of hepatic phospholipid remodeling and very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride secretion via sympathetic innervation. Mol Metab, 2015, 4(3): 210-221.
- 28. Bruinstroop E, Pei L, Ackermans MT, et al. Hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) controls hepatic VLDL-triglyceride secretion in rats via the sympathetic nervous system. Diabetes, 2012, 61(5): 1043-1050.
- 29. Kimura I, Inoue D, Maeda T, et al. Short-chain fatty acids and ketones directly regulate sympathetic nervous system via G protein-coupled receptor 41 (GPR41). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2011, 108(19): 8030-8035.
- 30. Xiao F, Guo Y, Deng J, et al. Hepatic c-Jun regulates glucose metabolism via FGF21 and modulates body temperature through the neural signals. Mol Metab, 2019, 20: 138-148.
- 31. Kurosawa M, Unno T, Aikawa Y, et al. Neural regulation of hepatic blood flow in rats: an in vivo study. Neurosci Lett, 2002, 321(3): 145-148.
- 32. Hsu CT, Schichijo K, Ito M, et al. The effect of chemical sympathectomy on acute liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Auton Nerv Syst, 1993, 43(2): 91-96.
- 33. Hsu CT. The role of the sympathetic nervous system in promoting liver cirrhosis induced by carbon tetrachloride, using the essential hypertensive animal (SHR). J Auton Nerv Syst, 1992, 37(3): 163-173.
- 34. Wheatley AM, Stuart ET, Zhao D, et al. Effect of orthotopic transplantation and chemical denervation of the liver on hepatic hemodynamics in the rat. J Hepatol, 1993, 19(3): 442-450.
- 35. van Westerloo DJ, Giebelen IA, Florquin S, et al. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway regulates the host response during septic peritonitis. J Infect Dis, 2005, 191(12): 2138-2148.
- 36. Li Y, Xu Z, Yu Y, et al. The vagus nerve attenuates fulminant hepatitis by activating the Src kinase in Kuppfer cells. Scand J Immunol, 2014, 79(2): 105-112.
- 37. Borovikova LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature, 2000, 405(6785): 458-462.
- 38. Abdel-Salam OM, Abdel-Rahman RF, Sleem AA, et al. Effects of afferent and efferent denervation of vagal nerve on endotoxin-induced oxidative stress in rats. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2013, 120(12): 1673-1688.
- 39. Xia H, Liu Z, Liang W, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation alleviates hepatic ischemia and reperfusion injury by regulating glutathione production and transformation. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2020, 2020: 1079129.
- 40. Lin JC, Peng YJ, Wang SY, et al. Role of the sympathetic nervous system in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity and systemic inflammation. PLoS One, 2015, 10(3): e0121365.
- 41. Zhu H, Guo YZ, Zhang J, et al. Donor denervation and elimination of Kupffer cells affect expression of P-selectin and ICAM-1 in liver graft. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int, 2007, 6(4): 379-382.
- 42. Worlicek M, Knebel K, Linde HJ, et al. Splanchnic sympathectomy prevents translocation and spreading of E coli but not S aureus in liver cirrhosis. Gut, 2010, 59(8): 1127-1134.
- 43. Huang J, Wang Y, Jiang D, et al. The sympathetic-vagal balance against endotoxemia. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 2010, 117(6): 729-735.
- 44. Hoover DB. Cholinergic modulation of the immune system presents new approaches for treating inflammation. Pharmacol Ther, 2017, 179: 1-16.
- 45. Henriksen JH, Møller S, Ring-Larsen H, et al. The sympathetic nervous system in liver disease. J Hepatol, 1998, 29(2): 328-341.
- 46. Oben JA, Roskams T, Yang S, et al. Hepatic fibrogenesis requires sympathetic neurotransmitters. Gut, 2004, 53(3): 438-445.
- 47. Hendrickse MT, Thuluvath PJ, Triger DR. Natural history of autonomic neuropathy in chronic liver disease. Lancet, 1992, 339(8807): 1462-1464.
- 48. Willett I, Esler M, Burke F, et al. Total and renal sympathetic nervous system activity in alcoholic cirrhosis. J Hepatol, 1985, 1(6): 639-648.
- 49. Henriksen JH, Ring-Larsen H, Kanstrup IL, et al. Splanchnic and renal elimination and release of catecholamines in cirrhosis. Evidence of enhanced sympathetic nervous activity in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Gut, 1984, 25(10): 1034-1043.
- 50. Hadengue A, Moreau R, Lee SS, et al. Liver hypermetabolism during alcohol withdrawal in humans. Role of sympathetic overactivity. Gastroenterology, 1988, 94(4): 1047-1052.
- 51. Bockx I, Verdrengh K, Vander Elst I, et al. High-frequency vagus nerve stimulation improves portal hypertension in cirrhotic rats. Gut, 2012, 61(4): 604-612.
- 52. Huan HB, Wen XD, Chen XJ, et al. Sympathetic nervous system promotes hepatocarcinogenesis by modulating inflammation through activation of alpha1-adrenergic receptors of Kupffer cells. Brain Behav Immun, 2017, 59: 118-134.
- 53. Hiramoto T, Yoshihara K, Asano Y, et al. Protective role of the hepatic vagus nerve against liver metastasis in mice. Neuroimmunomodulation, 2017, 24(6): 341-347.
- 54. Kamimura K, Inoue R, Nagoya T, et al. Autonomic nervous system network and liver regeneration. World J Gastroenterol, 2018, 24(15): 1616-1621.
- 55. Wang L, Zhu L, Wu K, et al. Mitochondrial general control of amino acid synthesis 5 like 1 regulates glutaminolysis, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity, and murine liver regeneration. Hepatology, 2020, 71(2): 643-657.
- 56. Kiba T. The role of the autonomic nervous system in liver regeneration and apoptosis—recent developments. Digestion, 2002, 66(2): 79-88.
- 57. Kiba T, Tanaka K, Endo O, et al. Role of vagus nerve in increased DNA synthesis after hypothalamic ventromedial lesions in rat liver. Am J Physiol, 1992, 262(3 Pt 1): G483-G487.
- 58. Cassiman D, Libbrecht L, Sinelli N, et al. The vagal nerve stimulates activation of the hepatic progenitor cell compartment via muscarinic acetylcholine receptor type 3. Am J Pathol, 2002, 161(2): 521-530.
- 59. Ikeda O, Ozaki M, Murata S, et al. Autonomic regulation of liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy in mice. J Surg Res, 2009, 152(2): 218-223.
- 60. Izumi T, Imai J, Yamamoto J, et al. Vagus-macrophage-hepatocyte link promotes post-injury liver regeneration and whole-body survival through hepatic FoxM1 activation. Nat Commun, 2018, 9(1): 5300.
- 61. Inoue R, Kamimura K, Nagoya T, et al. Effect of a neural relay on liver regeneration in mice: activation of serotonin release from the gastrointestinal tract. FEBS Open Bio, 2018, 8(3): 449-460.
- 62. Oben JA, Diehl AM. Sympathetic nervous system regulation of liver repair. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 874-883.
- 63. Oben JA, Roskams T, Yang S, et al. Sympathetic nervous system inhibition increases hepatic progenitors and reduces liver injury. Hepatology, 2003, 38(3): 664-673.
- 64. Xia F, He Z, Li K, et al. Evaluation of the role of sympathetic denervation on hepatic function. Hepatol Res, 2006, 36(4): 259-264.
- 65. Chida Y, Sudo N, Takaki A, et al. The hepatic sympathetic nerve plays a critical role in preventing Fas induced liver injury in mice. Gut, 2005, 54(7): 994-1002.
- 66. Kandilis AN, Koskinas J, Vlachos I, et al. Liver regeneration: immunohistochemical study of intrinsic hepatic innervation after partial hepatectomy in rats. BMC Gastroenterol, 2014, 14: 202.
- 67. Tanimizu N, Ichinohe N, Mitaka T. Intrahepatic bile ducts guide establishment of the intrahepatic nerve network in developing and regenerating mouse liver. Development, 2018, 145(9): dev159095.
- 68. Shibata S. Neural regulation of the hepatic circadian rhythm. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol, 2004, 280(1): 901-909.
- 69. Louis-Sylvestre J, Servant JM, Molimard R, et al. Effect of liver denervation on the feeding pattern of rats. Am J Physiol, 1980, 239(1): R66-R70.
- 70. Hayes MR, Kanoski SE, De Jonghe BC, et al. The common hepatic branch of the vagus is not required to mediate the glycemic and food intake suppressive effects of glucagon-like-peptide-1. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 2011, 301(5): R1479-R1485.
- 71. Niijima A. Effects of taste stimulation on the efferent activity of the autonomic nerves in the rat. Brain Res Bull, 1991, 26(1): 165-167.