育龄期女性癫痫患者丙戊酸的选择策略_Journal of Epilepsy

Authors：

 TomsonT , MarsonA , BoonP , CaneviniMP , CovanisA , GailyE , KälviäinenR , TrinkaE , 陈蓓蓓 , 贾晓涛 , 王雪莹 , 刘永红

Corresponding author：

TomsonT, Email: torbjorn.tomson@karolinska.se

Keywords：

丙戊酸; 抗癫痫药物; 致畸性; 癫痫; 妊娠

DOI：

10.7507/2096-0247.20160050

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鉴于丙戊酸(Valproate, VPA)宫内暴露的致畸风险及其对胎儿生长发育的影响, 2014年10月隶属于欧洲药品管理局(European Medicines Agency, EMA)的相互认证和分布处理协调小组(Coordination Group for Mutual Recognition and Decentralised Procedures-Human, CMDh)建议加强对女性使用VPA的限制, 随后国际抗癫痫联盟欧洲事务委员会(Commission on European Affairs of the International League Against Epilepsy, CEA-ILAE)及欧洲神经病学学会(European Academy of Neurology, EAN)组成的工作小组在《Epilepsia》上撰文, 旨在对育龄期女性使用VPA做出指导。撰文时, 工作小组充分考虑了使用VPA与其它替代药物的致畸风险、控制癫痫发作的重要性、癫痫发作对患者及胎儿的危害、VPA及其它抗癫痫药物对癫痫控制效力等因素。最终的建议包括以下7点:①育龄期女性应尽量避免使用VPA; ②应在医生及患者(必要时患者代理人)共同商议后决定治疗方案, 依据癫痫类型及发作形式选择合理的治疗方案时, 应仔细进行风险-获益评估; ③对于最适合VPA治疗的发作类型及综合征, 应该充分向患者及家属解释VPA及其它替代药物的获益和潜在风险; ④VPA不应作为局灶性癫痫的一线治疗药物; ⑤VPA或许可以作为治疗某些癫痫综合征的一线用药, 如特发性(遗传性)全面性癫痫伴有强直阵挛发作; ⑥VPA或许可作为生育可能性极小的女性癫痫患者的一线用药, 如合并严重的智力或身体残疾; ⑦应持续随访服用VPA的育龄期女性患者, 以确定最佳治疗方案

Citation： TomsonT, MarsonA, BoonP, CaneviniMP, CovanisA, GailyE, KälviäinenR, TrinkaE, 陈蓓蓓, 贾晓涛, 王雪莹, 刘永红. 育龄期女性癫痫患者丙戊酸的选择策略. Journal of Epilepsy, 2016, 2(3): 270-280. doi: 10.7507/2096-0247.20160050 Copy

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3.	Mawhinney E, Campbell J, Craig J, et al. Valproate and the risk of congenitalmalformations:is formulation and dosage regime important?.Seizure, 2012, 21(3):215-218.
4.	Tomson T, Battino D, Bonizzoni E, et al. Dose-dependent risk ofmalformations with antiepileptic drugs:an analysis of data from theEURAP epilepsy and pregnancy registry. Lancet Neurol, 2011, 86(10):609-617.
5.	Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drugexposure and cognitive outcomes at age 6 years (NEAD study):a prospectiveobservational study. Lancet Neurol, 2013, 12(8):244-252.
6.	Meador K, Reynolds MW, Crean S, et al. Pregnancy outcomes inwomen with epilepsy:a systematic review and meta-analysis of publishedpregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Res, 2008, 81(2):1-13.
7.	Hernandez-Diaz S, Smith CR, Shen A, et al. Comparative safety of antiepilepticdrugs during pregnancy. Neurology, 2012, 78(12):1692-1699.
8.	Campbell E, Kennedy F, Russell A, et al. Malformation risks of antiepilepticdrug monotherapies in pregnancy:updated results from the UKand Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2014, 85(5):1029-1034.
9.	Veiby G, Daltveit AK, Engelsen BA, et al. Fetal growth restrictionand birth defects with newer and older antiepileptic drugs duringpregnancy. J Neurol, 2014, 261(11):579-588.
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11.	Mawhinney E, Craig J, Morrow J, et al. Levetiracetam in pregnancy:results from the UK and Ireland epilepsy and pregnancy registers. Neurology, 2013, 80(5):400-405.
12.	Hunt S, Russell A, Smithson WH, et al. UK Epilepsy and PregnancyRegister. Topiramate in pregnancy:preliminary experience from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. Neurology, 2008, 71(11):272-276.
13.	Samr'en EB, van Duijn CM, Koch S, et al. Maternal use of antiepileptic drugs and the risk of major congenital malformations:a joint European prospective study of human teratogenesis associated with maternal epilepsy.Epilepsia, 1997, 38(10):981-990.
14.	Samr'en EB, van Duijn CM, Christiaens GC, et al. Antiepileptic drugregimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol, 1999, 46(9):739-746.
15.	Kaneko S, Battino D, Andermann E, et al. Congenital malformations due to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res, 1999, 33(8):145-158.
16.	Artama M, Auvinen A, Raudaskoski T, et al. Antiepileptic drug use ofwomen with epilepsy and congenital malformations in offspring. Neurology, 2005, 64(8):1874-1878.
17.	Bromley R, Weston J, Adab N, et al. Treatment for epilepsy in pregnancy:neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014, Art. No:CD010236.
18.	Baker GA, Bromley RL, Briggs M, et al. IQ at 6 years following inutero exposure to antiepileptic drugs:a controlled cohort study. Neurology, 2015, 84(2):382-390.
19.	Shallcross R, Bromey RL, Cheyne CP, et al. In utero exposure to levetiracetamvs valproate. Neurology, 2014, 82(6):213-221.
20.	Cohen MJ, Meador KJ, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drugexposure:motor, adaptive, and emotional/behavioral functioning a tage 3 years. Epilepsy Behav, 2011, 22(9):240-246.
21.	Cohen MJ, Meador KJ, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure:adaptive and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 6 years. Epilepsy Behav, 2013, 29(8):308-315.
22.	Christensen J, Gronborg TK, Sorensen MJ, et al. Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism.JAMA, 2013, 309(21):1696-1703.
23.	Posner EB, Mohamed KK, Marson AG. Ethosuximide, sodium valproateor lamotrigine for absence seizures in children and adolescents.Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2005, Art. No:CD003032.
24.	Coppola G, Auricchio G, Federico R, et al. Lamotrigine versus valproicacid as first-line monotherapy in newly diagnosed typical absence seizures:an open-label, randomized, parallel-group study. Epilepsia, 2004, 45(11):1049-1053.
25.	Glauser TA, Cnaan A, Shinnar S, et al. Ethosuximide, valproic acidand lamotrigine in childhood absence epilepsy. N Engl J Med, 2010, 362(31):790-799.
26.	Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalized and unclassifiable epilepsy:an unblended randomised controlled trial.Lancet, 2007, 369(10):1016-1026.
27.	Bonnett LJ, Tudur Smith C, et al. Time to 12-month remission and treatment failure for generalised and unclassified epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2014, 85(2):603-610.
28.	Fattore C, Boniver C, Capovilla G, et al. A multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of levetiracetam in children and adolescents with newly diagnosed absence epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2011, 52(12):802-809.
29.	Marson AG, Williamson PR, Hutton JL, et al. Carbamazepine versus valproate monotherapy for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2000, Art. No:CD001030.
30.	Nolan SJ, Marson AG, Pulman J, et al. Phenytoin versus valproate monotherapy for partial onset seizures and generalised onset tonic-clonicseizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013, Art. No:CD001769.
31.	Tudur Smith C, Marson AG, Chadwick DW, et al. Multiple treatment comparisons in epilepsy monotherapy trials. Trials, 2007, 8(1):34.
32.	Trinka E, Marson AG, Van Paesschen W, et al. KOMET:anunblinded, randomised, two parallel-group, stratified trial comparingthe effectiveness of levetiracetam with controlled-release carbamazepineand extended-release sodium valproate as monotherapy in patientswith newly diagnosed epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2013, 84(8):1138-1147.
33.	Park KM, Kim SH, Nho SK, et al. A randomized open-label observational study to compare the efficacy and tolerability between topiramate and valproate in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. J Clin Neurosci, 2013, 20(6):1079-1082.
34.	Levisohn PM, Holland KD. Topiramate or valproate in patients with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy:a randomized open-label comparison.Epilepsy Behav, 2013, 52(11):1150-1159.
35.	Noachtar S, Andermann E, Meyvisch P, et al. Levetiracetam for the treatment of idiopathic generalized epilepsy with myoclonic seizures.Neurology, 2008, 70(12):607-616.
36.	Covanis A, Gupta AK, Jeavons PM. Sodium valproate:monotherapy and polytherapy. Epilepsia, 1982, 23(8):693-720.
37.	Bourgeois B, Beaumanoir A, Blajev B, et al. Monotherapy with valproatein primary generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia, 1987, 28 (Suppl. 2):8-11.
38.	Nicolson A, Appleton RE, Chadwick DW, et al. The relationship between treatment with valproate, lamotrigine, and topiramate and the prognosis of the idiopathic generalised epilepsies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2004, 75(3):75-79.
39.	Genton P. When antiepileptic drugs aggravate epilepsy. Brain Dev, 2000, 22(4):75-80.
40.	Hesdorffer DC, Tomson T, Benn E, et al. Combined analysis of risk factors for SUDEP. Epilepsia, 2011, 52(10):1150-1159.
41.	Nilsson L, Tomson T, Farahmand BY, et al. Cause-specific mortalityin epilepsy:a cohort study of more than 9000 patients once hospitalized for epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1997, 38(8):1062-1068.
42.	Tomson T, Beghi E, Sundqvist A, et al. Medical risks in epilepsy:a review with focus on physical injuries, mortality, traffic accidents and their prevention. Epilepsy Res, 2004, 60(7):1-16.
43.	Granbichler CA, Oberaigner W, Kuchukhidze G, et al. Cause-specific mortality in adult epilepsy patients from tyrol, Austria:hospital-basedstudy. J Neurol, 2015, 262(3):126-133.
44.	Trinka E, Bauer G, Oberaigner W, et al. Cause-specific mortality among patients with epilepsy:results from a 30-year cohort study. Epilepsia, 2013, 54:495-501.
45.	Cummings C, Stewart M, Stevenson M, et al. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to lamotrigine, sodium valproate and carbamazepine.Arch Dis Child, 2011, 96(7):643-647.
46.	Grosso S, Balestri M, Di Bartolo RM, et al. Oxcarbazepine and atypical evolution of benign idiopathic focal epilepsy of childhood. Eur J Neurol, 2006, 13(6):1142-1145.
47.	Wheless JW, Clarke DF, Arzimanoglou A, et al. Treatment of pediatric epilepsy:European expert opinion, 2007. Epileptic Disord, 2007, 9(2):353-412.
48.	Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies:report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(9):676-685.
49.	Callenbach PM, Bouma PA, Geerts AT, et al. Long-term outcome of childhood absence epilepsy:Dutch study of epilepsy in childhood.Epilepsy Res, 2009, 83(7):249-256.
50.	Trinka E, Baumgartner S, Unterberger I, et al. Long-term prognosis for childhood and juvenile absence epilepsy. J Neurol, 2004, 251(17):1235-1241.
51.	Covanis A, Skiadas K, Loli N, et al. Absence epilepsy:early prognostic signs. Seizure, 1992, 1(3):281-289.
52.	Caraballo RH, Flesler S, Pasteris MC, et al. Myoclonic epilepsy in infancy:an electro clinical study and long-term follow-up of 38patients. Epilepsia, 2013, 54(20):1605-1612.
53.	Wallace S. Myoclonus and epilepsy in childhood:a review of treatment with Valproate, Ethosuximide, Lamotrigine and Zonisamide. Epilepsy Res, 1998, 29(10):147-154.
54.	Genton P, Bureau M. Epilepsy with myoclonic absences. CNS Drugs, 2006, 20(8):911-916.
55.	Oguni H, Tanaka T, Hayashi K. Treatment and long-term prognosis of myoclonic-astatic epilepsy of early childhood. Neuro pediatrics, 2002, 33(8):122-132.
56.	Liukkonen E, Kantola-Sorsa E, Paetau R, et al. Long-term outcome of 32 children with encephalopathy with status epilepticus during sleep, or ESES syndrome. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(8):2023-2032.
57.	Shahwan A, Farrell M, Delanty N. Progressive myoclonic epilepsies:a review of genetic and therapeutic aspects. Lancet Neurol, 2005, 4(1):239-248.
58.	Avula S, Parikh S, Demarest S, et al. Treatment of mitochondrial disorders.Curr Treat Options Neurol, 2014, 16(7):292.
59.	Chiron C, Dulac O. The pharmacologic treatment of dravet syndrome.Epilepsia, 2011, 52 (Suppl. 2):72-75.
60.	Chiron C, Marchand MC, Tran A, et al. Stiripentol in severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy:a randomised placebo-controlled syndrome dedicated trial. STICLO study group. Lancet, 2000, 356(11):1638-1642.
61.	Trinka E, Dilitz E, Unterberger I, et al. Non convulsive status epilepticus after replacement of valproate with lamotrigine. J Neurol, 2002, 249(10):1417-1422.
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1. European Medicines Agency. Assessment Report. Procedure UnderArticle 31 of Directive 2001/83/EC Resulting from PharmacovigilanceData. 2014. Available at:http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Referrals_document/Valproate_and_related_substances_31/Recommendation_provided_by_Pharmacovigilance_Risk_Assessment_Committee/WC500177352.pdf. Accessed April, 2015.
2. Nau H. Teratogenic valproic acid concentrations:infusion byimplanted minipumps vs conventional injection regimen in the mouse.Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 1985, 80(12):243-250.
3. Mawhinney E, Campbell J, Craig J, et al. Valproate and the risk of congenitalmalformations:is formulation and dosage regime important?.Seizure, 2012, 21(3):215-218.
4. Tomson T, Battino D, Bonizzoni E, et al. Dose-dependent risk ofmalformations with antiepileptic drugs:an analysis of data from theEURAP epilepsy and pregnancy registry. Lancet Neurol, 2011, 86(10):609-617.
5. Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drugexposure and cognitive outcomes at age 6 years (NEAD study):a prospectiveobservational study. Lancet Neurol, 2013, 12(8):244-252.
6. Meador K, Reynolds MW, Crean S, et al. Pregnancy outcomes inwomen with epilepsy:a systematic review and meta-analysis of publishedpregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Res, 2008, 81(2):1-13.
7. Hernandez-Diaz S, Smith CR, Shen A, et al. Comparative safety of antiepilepticdrugs during pregnancy. Neurology, 2012, 78(12):1692-1699.
8. Campbell E, Kennedy F, Russell A, et al. Malformation risks of antiepilepticdrug monotherapies in pregnancy:updated results from the UKand Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2014, 85(5):1029-1034.
9. Veiby G, Daltveit AK, Engelsen BA, et al. Fetal growth restrictionand birth defects with newer and older antiepileptic drugs duringpregnancy. J Neurol, 2014, 261(11):579-588.
10. Tomson T, Battino D. Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol, 2012, 11(3):803-813.
11. Mawhinney E, Craig J, Morrow J, et al. Levetiracetam in pregnancy:results from the UK and Ireland epilepsy and pregnancy registers. Neurology, 2013, 80(5):400-405.
12. Hunt S, Russell A, Smithson WH, et al. UK Epilepsy and PregnancyRegister. Topiramate in pregnancy:preliminary experience from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. Neurology, 2008, 71(11):272-276.
13. Samr'en EB, van Duijn CM, Koch S, et al. Maternal use of antiepileptic drugs and the risk of major congenital malformations:a joint European prospective study of human teratogenesis associated with maternal epilepsy.Epilepsia, 1997, 38(10):981-990.
14. Samr'en EB, van Duijn CM, Christiaens GC, et al. Antiepileptic drugregimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol, 1999, 46(9):739-746.
15. Kaneko S, Battino D, Andermann E, et al. Congenital malformations due to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res, 1999, 33(8):145-158.
16. Artama M, Auvinen A, Raudaskoski T, et al. Antiepileptic drug use ofwomen with epilepsy and congenital malformations in offspring. Neurology, 2005, 64(8):1874-1878.
17. Bromley R, Weston J, Adab N, et al. Treatment for epilepsy in pregnancy:neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014, Art. No:CD010236.
18. Baker GA, Bromley RL, Briggs M, et al. IQ at 6 years following inutero exposure to antiepileptic drugs:a controlled cohort study. Neurology, 2015, 84(2):382-390.
19. Shallcross R, Bromey RL, Cheyne CP, et al. In utero exposure to levetiracetamvs valproate. Neurology, 2014, 82(6):213-221.
20. Cohen MJ, Meador KJ, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drugexposure:motor, adaptive, and emotional/behavioral functioning a tage 3 years. Epilepsy Behav, 2011, 22(9):240-246.
21. Cohen MJ, Meador KJ, Browning N, et al. Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure:adaptive and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 6 years. Epilepsy Behav, 2013, 29(8):308-315.
22. Christensen J, Gronborg TK, Sorensen MJ, et al. Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism.JAMA, 2013, 309(21):1696-1703.
23. Posner EB, Mohamed KK, Marson AG. Ethosuximide, sodium valproateor lamotrigine for absence seizures in children and adolescents.Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2005, Art. No:CD003032.
24. Coppola G, Auricchio G, Federico R, et al. Lamotrigine versus valproicacid as first-line monotherapy in newly diagnosed typical absence seizures:an open-label, randomized, parallel-group study. Epilepsia, 2004, 45(11):1049-1053.
25. Glauser TA, Cnaan A, Shinnar S, et al. Ethosuximide, valproic acidand lamotrigine in childhood absence epilepsy. N Engl J Med, 2010, 362(31):790-799.
26. Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalized and unclassifiable epilepsy:an unblended randomised controlled trial.Lancet, 2007, 369(10):1016-1026.
27. Bonnett LJ, Tudur Smith C, et al. Time to 12-month remission and treatment failure for generalised and unclassified epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2014, 85(2):603-610.
28. Fattore C, Boniver C, Capovilla G, et al. A multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of levetiracetam in children and adolescents with newly diagnosed absence epilepsy. Epilepsia, 2011, 52(12):802-809.
29. Marson AG, Williamson PR, Hutton JL, et al. Carbamazepine versus valproate monotherapy for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2000, Art. No:CD001030.
30. Nolan SJ, Marson AG, Pulman J, et al. Phenytoin versus valproate monotherapy for partial onset seizures and generalised onset tonic-clonicseizures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013, Art. No:CD001769.
31. Tudur Smith C, Marson AG, Chadwick DW, et al. Multiple treatment comparisons in epilepsy monotherapy trials. Trials, 2007, 8(1):34.
32. Trinka E, Marson AG, Van Paesschen W, et al. KOMET:anunblinded, randomised, two parallel-group, stratified trial comparingthe effectiveness of levetiracetam with controlled-release carbamazepineand extended-release sodium valproate as monotherapy in patientswith newly diagnosed epilepsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2013, 84(8):1138-1147.
33. Park KM, Kim SH, Nho SK, et al. A randomized open-label observational study to compare the efficacy and tolerability between topiramate and valproate in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. J Clin Neurosci, 2013, 20(6):1079-1082.
34. Levisohn PM, Holland KD. Topiramate or valproate in patients with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy:a randomized open-label comparison.Epilepsy Behav, 2013, 52(11):1150-1159.
35. Noachtar S, Andermann E, Meyvisch P, et al. Levetiracetam for the treatment of idiopathic generalized epilepsy with myoclonic seizures.Neurology, 2008, 70(12):607-616.
36. Covanis A, Gupta AK, Jeavons PM. Sodium valproate:monotherapy and polytherapy. Epilepsia, 1982, 23(8):693-720.
37. Bourgeois B, Beaumanoir A, Blajev B, et al. Monotherapy with valproatein primary generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia, 1987, 28 (Suppl. 2):8-11.
38. Nicolson A, Appleton RE, Chadwick DW, et al. The relationship between treatment with valproate, lamotrigine, and topiramate and the prognosis of the idiopathic generalised epilepsies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2004, 75(3):75-79.
39. Genton P. When antiepileptic drugs aggravate epilepsy. Brain Dev, 2000, 22(4):75-80.
40. Hesdorffer DC, Tomson T, Benn E, et al. Combined analysis of risk factors for SUDEP. Epilepsia, 2011, 52(10):1150-1159.
41. Nilsson L, Tomson T, Farahmand BY, et al. Cause-specific mortalityin epilepsy:a cohort study of more than 9000 patients once hospitalized for epilepsy. Epilepsia, 1997, 38(8):1062-1068.
42. Tomson T, Beghi E, Sundqvist A, et al. Medical risks in epilepsy:a review with focus on physical injuries, mortality, traffic accidents and their prevention. Epilepsy Res, 2004, 60(7):1-16.
43. Granbichler CA, Oberaigner W, Kuchukhidze G, et al. Cause-specific mortality in adult epilepsy patients from tyrol, Austria:hospital-basedstudy. J Neurol, 2015, 262(3):126-133.
44. Trinka E, Bauer G, Oberaigner W, et al. Cause-specific mortality among patients with epilepsy:results from a 30-year cohort study. Epilepsia, 2013, 54:495-501.
45. Cummings C, Stewart M, Stevenson M, et al. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to lamotrigine, sodium valproate and carbamazepine.Arch Dis Child, 2011, 96(7):643-647.
46. Grosso S, Balestri M, Di Bartolo RM, et al. Oxcarbazepine and atypical evolution of benign idiopathic focal epilepsy of childhood. Eur J Neurol, 2006, 13(6):1142-1145.
47. Wheless JW, Clarke DF, Arzimanoglou A, et al. Treatment of pediatric epilepsy:European expert opinion, 2007. Epileptic Disord, 2007, 9(2):353-412.
48. Berg AT, Berkovic SF, Brodie MJ, et al. Revised terminology and concepts for organization of seizures and epilepsies:report of the ILAE Commission on Classification and Terminology, 2005-2009. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(9):676-685.
49. Callenbach PM, Bouma PA, Geerts AT, et al. Long-term outcome of childhood absence epilepsy:Dutch study of epilepsy in childhood.Epilepsy Res, 2009, 83(7):249-256.
50. Trinka E, Baumgartner S, Unterberger I, et al. Long-term prognosis for childhood and juvenile absence epilepsy. J Neurol, 2004, 251(17):1235-1241.
51. Covanis A, Skiadas K, Loli N, et al. Absence epilepsy:early prognostic signs. Seizure, 1992, 1(3):281-289.
52. Caraballo RH, Flesler S, Pasteris MC, et al. Myoclonic epilepsy in infancy:an electro clinical study and long-term follow-up of 38patients. Epilepsia, 2013, 54(20):1605-1612.
53. Wallace S. Myoclonus and epilepsy in childhood:a review of treatment with Valproate, Ethosuximide, Lamotrigine and Zonisamide. Epilepsy Res, 1998, 29(10):147-154.
54. Genton P, Bureau M. Epilepsy with myoclonic absences. CNS Drugs, 2006, 20(8):911-916.
55. Oguni H, Tanaka T, Hayashi K. Treatment and long-term prognosis of myoclonic-astatic epilepsy of early childhood. Neuro pediatrics, 2002, 33(8):122-132.
56. Liukkonen E, Kantola-Sorsa E, Paetau R, et al. Long-term outcome of 32 children with encephalopathy with status epilepticus during sleep, or ESES syndrome. Epilepsia, 2010, 51(8):2023-2032.
57. Shahwan A, Farrell M, Delanty N. Progressive myoclonic epilepsies:a review of genetic and therapeutic aspects. Lancet Neurol, 2005, 4(1):239-248.
58. Avula S, Parikh S, Demarest S, et al. Treatment of mitochondrial disorders.Curr Treat Options Neurol, 2014, 16(7):292.
59. Chiron C, Dulac O. The pharmacologic treatment of dravet syndrome.Epilepsia, 2011, 52 (Suppl. 2):72-75.
60. Chiron C, Marchand MC, Tran A, et al. Stiripentol in severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy:a randomised placebo-controlled syndrome dedicated trial. STICLO study group. Lancet, 2000, 356(11):1638-1642.
61. Trinka E, Dilitz E, Unterberger I, et al. Non convulsive status epilepticus after replacement of valproate with lamotrigine. J Neurol, 2002, 249(10):1417-1422.
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