Lung transplantation for lung cancer: History, status, and future_Chinese Journal of Clinical Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

Authors：

TAN Jinghong ¹ , CHENG Chao ¹ ,  CHEN Jingyu ^2,3

1. Department of thoracic surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yet-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, Guangdong, P. R. China;
2. Lung Transplant Center of Wuxi People’s Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical School, Wuxi, 214043, Jiangsu, P. R. China;
3. Department of Lung transplantation, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310052, Zhejiang, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

CHEN Jingyu, Email: chenjy@wuxiph.com

Keywords：

Lung transplantation; lung cancer; therapy; review

DOI：

10.7507/1007-4848.202411008

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Lung cancer is the most prevalent malignant tumor worldwide. For patients with multiple pulmonary metastases or compromised lung function, achieving complete tumor resection is challenging, and the prognosis is often poor. Lung transplantation has shown potential therapeutic value in the complete removal of tumors, improving lung function, and enhancing the quality of life for these patients. The advancement of tumor detection technologies such as PET-CT and ctDNA, along with comprehensive treatment strategies for lung cancer, provides powerful tools for the precise prediction of tumor recurrence and treatment outcomes following lung transplantation. The feasibility of lung transplantation for lung cancer is receiving increasing attention. This article will review the history and clinical management of lung transplantation in the context of lung cancer.

1.	Tian D, Yan HJ, Huang H, et al. Machine learning-based prognostic model for patients after lung transplantation. JAMA Netw Open, 2023, 6(5): e2312022.
2.	Leard LE, Holm AM, Valapour M, et al. Consensus document for the selection of lung transplant candidates: An update from the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2021, 40(11): 1349-1379.
3.	中华医学会器官移植学分会. 中国肺移植受者选择与术前评估技术规范(2019版). 中华移植杂志(电子版), 2019, 13(2): 81-86.Branch of Organ Transplantation of Chinese Medical Association. Techical specification for the selection of recipient and preoperative evaluation of lung transplantation in China (2019 edition). Chin J Transplant (Electronic Edition), 2019, 13(2): 81-86.
4.	钱共匋, 李小杉, 胡春晓, 等. 2021年中国肺脏移植发展报告解读. 中国医学前沿杂志(电子版), 2023, 15(4): 1-6.Qian GT, Li XS, Hu CX, et al. Interpretation of report on lung transplantation development in China 2021. Chin J Front Med Sci (Electronic Edition), 2023, 15(4): 1-6.
5.	Singh TP, Cherikh WS, Hsich E, et al. Graft survival in primary thoracic organ transplant recipients: A special report from the International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2023, 42(10): 1321-1333.
6.	Han B, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2022. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(1): 47-53.
7.	Zeng H, Ran X, An L, et al. Disparities in stage at diagnosis for five common cancers in China: A multicentre, hospital-based, observational study. Lancet Public Health, 2021, 6(12): e877-e887.
8.	Li Y, Wong M, Zhan L, et al. Single organ metastatic sites in non-small cell lung cancer: Patient characteristics, treatment patterns and outcomes from a large retrospective Canadian cohort. Lung Cancer, 2024, 192: 107823.
9.	Gao G, Zhou C, Huang Y, et al. Randomized phase Ⅲ study comparing the first-line chemotherapy regimens in patients with driver mutation-negative advanced non-small cell lung cancer and poor performance status complicated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Transl Lung Cancer Res, 2021, 10(6): 2573-2587.
10.	de Perrot M, Chernenko S, Waddell TK, et al. Role of lung transplantation in the treatment of bronchogenic carcinomas for patients with end-stage pulmonary disease. J Clin Oncol, 2004, 22(21): 4351-4356.
11.	Ahmad U, Wang Z, Bryant AS, et al. Outcomes for lung transplantation for lung cancer in the United Network for Organ Sharing Registry. Ann Thorac Surg, 2012, 94(3): 935-940.
12.	Spies CS, Ochoa TN, Pontula A, et al. With comparable outcomes, should early-stage lung cancer be a contraindication to lung transplant? Ann Thorac Surg, 2024, 118(1): 261-267.
13.	Hardy JD, Webb WR, Dalton ML, et al. Lung homotransplantation in man. JAMA, 1963, 186: 1065-1074.
14.	West HL, Franklin WA, McCoy J, et al. Gefitinib therapy in advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma: Southwest Oncology Group Study S0126. J Clin Oncol, 2006, 24(12): 1807-1813.
15.	Cadranel J, Quoix E, Baudrin L, et al. IFCT-0401 Trial: A phaseⅡstudy of gefitinib administered as first-line treatment in advanced adenocarcinoma with bronchioloalveolar carcinoma subtype. J Thorac Oncol, 2009, 4(9): 1126-1135.
16.	West HL, Moon J, Wozniak AJ, et al. Paired phase Ⅱ studies of erlotinib/bevacizumab for advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma or never smokers with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: SWOG S0635 and S0636 Trials. Clin Lung Cancer, 2018, 19(1): 84-92.
17.	Casali C, Rossi G, Marchioni A, et al. A single institution-based retrospective study of surgically treated bronchioloalveolar adenocarcinoma of the lung: Clinicopathologic analysis, molecular features, and possible pitfalls in routine practice. J Thorac Oncol, 2010, 5(6): 830-836.
18.	Garver RI, Zorn GL, Wu X, et al. Recurrence of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma in transplanted lungs. N Engl J Med, 1999, 340(14): 1071-1074.
19.	Zorn GL, McGiffin DC, Young KR, et al. Pulmonary transplantation for advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 2003, 125(1): 45-48.
20.	Chae YK, Oh Y, Kim L, et al. Bilateral orthotopic lung transplantation for the patient with lung-limited invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma: A case-based literature review. Oncologist, 2024, 2: oyae263.
21.	Chae YK. Double lung transplant registry aimed for lung-limited malignancies (DREAM) - A prospective observational registry study for patients undergoing lung transplantation for medically refractory cancers confined to the lungs. NCT05671887. clinicaltrials. gov, 2023.
22.	Minegishi Y, Gemma A, Homma S, et al. Acute exacerbation of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias related to chemotherapy for lung cancer: Nationwide surveillance in Japan. ERJ Open Res, 2020, 6(2): 00184-2019.
23.	Jeganathan V, Knight S, Bricknell M, et al. Impact of smoking status and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on pulmonary complications post lung cancer surgery. PLoS One, 2022, 17(3): e0266052.
24.	Shin SH, Shin S, Im Y, et al. Effect of perioperative bronchodilator therapy on postoperative pulmonary function among lung cancer patients with COPD. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 8359.
25.	Tang C, Mistry H, Bayman N, et al. Outcomes of curative-intent radiotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and interstitial lung disease (ILD). Radiother Oncol, 2021, 160: 78-81.
26.	Ghatol A, Ruhl AP, Danoff SK. Exacerbations in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis triggered by pulmonary and nonpulmonary surgery: A case series and comprehensive review of the literature. Lung, 2012, 190(4): 373-380.
27.	Chae YK, Demir T, Chung LIY, et al. Double lung transplantation in patients with metastatic lung-limited non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC): A case series. JCO, 2024, 42(16_suppl): 8643-8643.
28.	Elsolh B, Bayat Z, Lyu D, et al. Lung transplantation for lung cancer: A systematic review of the literature. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2023, 42(10): 1425-1436.
29.	Chambers DC, Cherikh WS, Harhay MO, et al. The International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Thirty-sixth adult lung and heart-lung transplantation report-2019; Focus theme: Donor and recipient size match. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2019, 38(10): 1042-1055.
30.	Acuna SA. Etiology of increased cancer incidence after solid organ transplantation. Transplant Rev (Orlando), 2018, 32(4): 218-224.
31.	Benoni H, Eloranta S, Ekbom A, et al. Survival among solid organ transplant recipients diagnosed with cancer compared to nontransplanted cancer patients-A nationwide study. Int J Cancer, 2020, 146(3): 682-691.
32.	D’Arcy ME, Coghill AE, Lynch CF, et al. Survival after a cancer diagnosis among solid organ transplant recipients in the United States. Cancer, 2019, 125(6): 933-942.
33.	Gorji L, Brown ZJ, Limkemann A, et al. Liver transplant as a treatment of primary and secondary liver neoplasms. JAMA Surg, 2024, 159(2): 211-218.
34.	Amratia DA, Hunt WR, Neujahr D, et al. Incidentally detected malignancies in lung transplant explants. Transplant Direct, 2019, 5(11): e503.
35.	Ahmad U, Hakim AH, Tang A, et al. Patterns of recurrence and overall survival in incidental lung cancer in explanted lungs. Ann Thorac Surg, 2019, 107(3): 891-896.
36.	Miao W, Nie P, Yang G, et al. An FDG PET/CT metabolic parameter-based nomogram for predicting the early recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, 2021, 48(11): 3656-3665.
37.	Winkens T, Rudakoff W, Rauchfuss F, et al. FDG PET/CT to detect incidental findings in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma-Additional benefit for patients considered for liver transplantation? Clin Nucl Med, 2021, 46(7): 532-539.
38.	Yao FY, Mehta N, Flemming J, et al. Downstaging of hepatocellular cancer before liver transplant: Long-term outcome compared to tumors within Milan criteria. Hepatology, 2015, 61(6): 1968-1977.
39.	Huang A, Guo DZ, Zhang X, et al. Serial circulating tumor DNA profiling predicts tumor recurrence after liver transplantation for liver cancer. Hepatol Int, 2024, 18(1): 254-264.
40.	Schuurbiers M, Smith CG, Hartemink K, et al. Validation of recurrence prediction using circulating tumor DNA in patients with curatively treated early stage non-small cell lung cancer. JCO, 2023, 41(16_suppl): 8535.
41.	Li W, Liu JB, Hou LK, et al. Liquid biopsy in lung cancer: Significance in diagnostics, prediction, and treatment monitoring. Mol Cancer, 2022, 21(1): 25.
42.	Abbosh C, Frankell AM, Harrison T, et al. Tracking early lung cancer metastatic dissemination in TRACERx using ctDNA. Nature, 2023, 616(7957): 553-562.
43.	Anagnostou V, Ho C, Nicholas G, et al. ctDNA response after pembrolizumab in non-small cell lung cancer: Phase 2 adaptive trial results. Nat Med, 2023, 29(10): 2559-2569.
44.	Li M, Bhoori S, Mehta N, et al. Immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: The next evolution in expanding access to liver transplantation. J Hepatol, 2024, 81(4): 743-755.
45.	Wang DR, Wu XL, Sun YL. Therapeutic targets and biomarkers of tumor immunotherapy: Response versus non-response. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2022, 7(1): 331.
46.	Ihara Y, Sawa K, Imai T, et al. Immunotherapy and overall survival among patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer and obesity. JAMA Netw Open, 2024, 7(8): e2425363.
47.	Mazzaferro V, Citterio D, Bhoori S, et al. Liver transplantation in hepatocellular carcinoma after tumour downstaging (XXL): A randomised, controlled, phase 2b/3 trial. Lancet Oncol, 2020, 21(7): 947-956.
48.	Guo Z, Liu Y, Ling Q, et al. Pretransplant use of immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma: A multicenter, retrospective cohort study. Am J Transplant, 2024, 24(10): 1837-1856.
49.	Wassmer CH, El Hajji S, Papazarkadas X, et al. Immunotherapy and liver transplantation: A narrative review of basic and clinical data. Cancers (Basel), 2023, 15(18): 4574.
50.	Wang R, Zhang Y, Pan Y, et al. Comprehensive investigation of oncogenic driver mutations in Chinese non-small cell lung cancer patients. Oncotarget, 2015, 6(33): 34300-34308.
51.	Blumenthal GM, Zhang L, Zhang H, et al. Milestone analyses of immune checkpoint inhibitors, targeted therapy, and conventional therapy in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer trials: A meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol, 2017, 3(8): e171029.
52.	Xu J, Shen ZY, Chen XG, et al. A randomized controlled trial of Licartin for preventing hepatoma recurrence after liver transplantation. Hepatology, 2007, 45(2): 269-276.
53.	Fahrner R, Dondorf F, Ardelt M, et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma-Factors influencing outcome and disease-free survival. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(42): 12071-12082.
54.	Invernizzi F, Iavarone M, Zavaglia C, et al. Experience with early sorafenib treatment with mTOR inhibitors in hepatocellular carcinoma recurring after liver transplantation. Transplantation, 2020, 104(3): 568-574.
55.	Truesdale AE, Caldwell SH, Shah NL, et al. Sorafenib therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplant is associated with increased complications after transplant. Transpl Int, 2011, 24(10): 991-998.
56.	Iavarone M, Invernizzi F, Czauderna C, et al. Preliminary experience on safety of regorafenib after sorafenib failure in recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2019, 19(11): 3176-3184.
57.	Yun JK, Lee GD, Choi S, et al. Comparison between lymph node station- and zone-based classification for the future revision of node descriptors proposed by the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer in surgically resected patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2019, 56(5): 849-857.
58.	Wang JH, Pfeiffer RM, Musgrove D, et al. Cancer mortality among solid organ transplant recipients in the United States during 1987-2018. Transplantation, 2023, 107(11): 2433-2442.
59.	Engels EA, Pfeiffer RM, Fraumeni JF, et al. Spectrum of cancer risk among US solid organ transplant recipients. JAMA, 2011, 306(17): 1891-1901.
60.	Hubbard R, Venn A, Lewis S, et al. Lung cancer and cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: A population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000, 161(1): 5-8.
61.	Triplette M, Crothers K, Mahale P, et al. Risk of lung cancer in lung transplant recipients in the United States. Am J Transplant, 2019, 19(5): 1478-1490.
62.	Chung WS, Lin CL, Hsu WH, et al. Increased risk of lung cancer among patients with bronchiectasis: A nationwide cohort study. QJM, 2016, 109(1): 17-25.
63.	Krabbe J, Steffens KM, Drießen S, et al. Lung cancer risk and occupational pulmonary fibrosis: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev, 2024, 33(171): 230224.
64.	Silicosis. The Lancet, 2012, 379(9830): 2008-2018.
65.	Olland AB, Falcoz PE, Santelmo N, et al. Primary lung cancer in lung transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg, 2014, 98(1): 362-371.

1. Tian D, Yan HJ, Huang H, et al. Machine learning-based prognostic model for patients after lung transplantation. JAMA Netw Open, 2023, 6(5): e2312022.
2. Leard LE, Holm AM, Valapour M, et al. Consensus document for the selection of lung transplant candidates: An update from the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2021, 40(11): 1349-1379.
3. 中华医学会器官移植学分会. 中国肺移植受者选择与术前评估技术规范(2019版). 中华移植杂志(电子版), 2019, 13(2): 81-86.Branch of Organ Transplantation of Chinese Medical Association. Techical specification for the selection of recipient and preoperative evaluation of lung transplantation in China (2019 edition). Chin J Transplant (Electronic Edition), 2019, 13(2): 81-86.
4. 钱共匋, 李小杉, 胡春晓, 等. 2021年中国肺脏移植发展报告解读. 中国医学前沿杂志(电子版), 2023, 15(4): 1-6.Qian GT, Li XS, Hu CX, et al. Interpretation of report on lung transplantation development in China 2021. Chin J Front Med Sci (Electronic Edition), 2023, 15(4): 1-6.
5. Singh TP, Cherikh WS, Hsich E, et al. Graft survival in primary thoracic organ transplant recipients: A special report from the International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2023, 42(10): 1321-1333.
6. Han B, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2022. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(1): 47-53.
7. Zeng H, Ran X, An L, et al. Disparities in stage at diagnosis for five common cancers in China: A multicentre, hospital-based, observational study. Lancet Public Health, 2021, 6(12): e877-e887.
8. Li Y, Wong M, Zhan L, et al. Single organ metastatic sites in non-small cell lung cancer: Patient characteristics, treatment patterns and outcomes from a large retrospective Canadian cohort. Lung Cancer, 2024, 192: 107823.
9. Gao G, Zhou C, Huang Y, et al. Randomized phase Ⅲ study comparing the first-line chemotherapy regimens in patients with driver mutation-negative advanced non-small cell lung cancer and poor performance status complicated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Transl Lung Cancer Res, 2021, 10(6): 2573-2587.
10. de Perrot M, Chernenko S, Waddell TK, et al. Role of lung transplantation in the treatment of bronchogenic carcinomas for patients with end-stage pulmonary disease. J Clin Oncol, 2004, 22(21): 4351-4356.
11. Ahmad U, Wang Z, Bryant AS, et al. Outcomes for lung transplantation for lung cancer in the United Network for Organ Sharing Registry. Ann Thorac Surg, 2012, 94(3): 935-940.
12. Spies CS, Ochoa TN, Pontula A, et al. With comparable outcomes, should early-stage lung cancer be a contraindication to lung transplant? Ann Thorac Surg, 2024, 118(1): 261-267.
13. Hardy JD, Webb WR, Dalton ML, et al. Lung homotransplantation in man. JAMA, 1963, 186: 1065-1074.
14. West HL, Franklin WA, McCoy J, et al. Gefitinib therapy in advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma: Southwest Oncology Group Study S0126. J Clin Oncol, 2006, 24(12): 1807-1813.
15. Cadranel J, Quoix E, Baudrin L, et al. IFCT-0401 Trial: A phaseⅡstudy of gefitinib administered as first-line treatment in advanced adenocarcinoma with bronchioloalveolar carcinoma subtype. J Thorac Oncol, 2009, 4(9): 1126-1135.
16. West HL, Moon J, Wozniak AJ, et al. Paired phase Ⅱ studies of erlotinib/bevacizumab for advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma or never smokers with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer: SWOG S0635 and S0636 Trials. Clin Lung Cancer, 2018, 19(1): 84-92.
17. Casali C, Rossi G, Marchioni A, et al. A single institution-based retrospective study of surgically treated bronchioloalveolar adenocarcinoma of the lung: Clinicopathologic analysis, molecular features, and possible pitfalls in routine practice. J Thorac Oncol, 2010, 5(6): 830-836.
18. Garver RI, Zorn GL, Wu X, et al. Recurrence of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma in transplanted lungs. N Engl J Med, 1999, 340(14): 1071-1074.
19. Zorn GL, McGiffin DC, Young KR, et al. Pulmonary transplantation for advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg, 2003, 125(1): 45-48.
20. Chae YK, Oh Y, Kim L, et al. Bilateral orthotopic lung transplantation for the patient with lung-limited invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma: A case-based literature review. Oncologist, 2024, 2: oyae263.
21. Chae YK. Double lung transplant registry aimed for lung-limited malignancies (DREAM) - A prospective observational registry study for patients undergoing lung transplantation for medically refractory cancers confined to the lungs. NCT05671887. clinicaltrials. gov, 2023.
22. Minegishi Y, Gemma A, Homma S, et al. Acute exacerbation of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias related to chemotherapy for lung cancer: Nationwide surveillance in Japan. ERJ Open Res, 2020, 6(2): 00184-2019.
23. Jeganathan V, Knight S, Bricknell M, et al. Impact of smoking status and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on pulmonary complications post lung cancer surgery. PLoS One, 2022, 17(3): e0266052.
24. Shin SH, Shin S, Im Y, et al. Effect of perioperative bronchodilator therapy on postoperative pulmonary function among lung cancer patients with COPD. Sci Rep, 2021, 11(1): 8359.
25. Tang C, Mistry H, Bayman N, et al. Outcomes of curative-intent radiotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and interstitial lung disease (ILD). Radiother Oncol, 2021, 160: 78-81.
26. Ghatol A, Ruhl AP, Danoff SK. Exacerbations in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis triggered by pulmonary and nonpulmonary surgery: A case series and comprehensive review of the literature. Lung, 2012, 190(4): 373-380.
27. Chae YK, Demir T, Chung LIY, et al. Double lung transplantation in patients with metastatic lung-limited non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC): A case series. JCO, 2024, 42(16_suppl): 8643-8643.
28. Elsolh B, Bayat Z, Lyu D, et al. Lung transplantation for lung cancer: A systematic review of the literature. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2023, 42(10): 1425-1436.
29. Chambers DC, Cherikh WS, Harhay MO, et al. The International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: Thirty-sixth adult lung and heart-lung transplantation report-2019; Focus theme: Donor and recipient size match. J Heart Lung Transplant, 2019, 38(10): 1042-1055.
30. Acuna SA. Etiology of increased cancer incidence after solid organ transplantation. Transplant Rev (Orlando), 2018, 32(4): 218-224.
31. Benoni H, Eloranta S, Ekbom A, et al. Survival among solid organ transplant recipients diagnosed with cancer compared to nontransplanted cancer patients-A nationwide study. Int J Cancer, 2020, 146(3): 682-691.
32. D’Arcy ME, Coghill AE, Lynch CF, et al. Survival after a cancer diagnosis among solid organ transplant recipients in the United States. Cancer, 2019, 125(6): 933-942.
33. Gorji L, Brown ZJ, Limkemann A, et al. Liver transplant as a treatment of primary and secondary liver neoplasms. JAMA Surg, 2024, 159(2): 211-218.
34. Amratia DA, Hunt WR, Neujahr D, et al. Incidentally detected malignancies in lung transplant explants. Transplant Direct, 2019, 5(11): e503.
35. Ahmad U, Hakim AH, Tang A, et al. Patterns of recurrence and overall survival in incidental lung cancer in explanted lungs. Ann Thorac Surg, 2019, 107(3): 891-896.
36. Miao W, Nie P, Yang G, et al. An FDG PET/CT metabolic parameter-based nomogram for predicting the early recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, 2021, 48(11): 3656-3665.
37. Winkens T, Rudakoff W, Rauchfuss F, et al. FDG PET/CT to detect incidental findings in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma-Additional benefit for patients considered for liver transplantation? Clin Nucl Med, 2021, 46(7): 532-539.
38. Yao FY, Mehta N, Flemming J, et al. Downstaging of hepatocellular cancer before liver transplant: Long-term outcome compared to tumors within Milan criteria. Hepatology, 2015, 61(6): 1968-1977.
39. Huang A, Guo DZ, Zhang X, et al. Serial circulating tumor DNA profiling predicts tumor recurrence after liver transplantation for liver cancer. Hepatol Int, 2024, 18(1): 254-264.
40. Schuurbiers M, Smith CG, Hartemink K, et al. Validation of recurrence prediction using circulating tumor DNA in patients with curatively treated early stage non-small cell lung cancer. JCO, 2023, 41(16_suppl): 8535.
41. Li W, Liu JB, Hou LK, et al. Liquid biopsy in lung cancer: Significance in diagnostics, prediction, and treatment monitoring. Mol Cancer, 2022, 21(1): 25.
42. Abbosh C, Frankell AM, Harrison T, et al. Tracking early lung cancer metastatic dissemination in TRACERx using ctDNA. Nature, 2023, 616(7957): 553-562.
43. Anagnostou V, Ho C, Nicholas G, et al. ctDNA response after pembrolizumab in non-small cell lung cancer: Phase 2 adaptive trial results. Nat Med, 2023, 29(10): 2559-2569.
44. Li M, Bhoori S, Mehta N, et al. Immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: The next evolution in expanding access to liver transplantation. J Hepatol, 2024, 81(4): 743-755.
45. Wang DR, Wu XL, Sun YL. Therapeutic targets and biomarkers of tumor immunotherapy: Response versus non-response. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2022, 7(1): 331.
46. Ihara Y, Sawa K, Imai T, et al. Immunotherapy and overall survival among patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer and obesity. JAMA Netw Open, 2024, 7(8): e2425363.
47. Mazzaferro V, Citterio D, Bhoori S, et al. Liver transplantation in hepatocellular carcinoma after tumour downstaging (XXL): A randomised, controlled, phase 2b/3 trial. Lancet Oncol, 2020, 21(7): 947-956.
48. Guo Z, Liu Y, Ling Q, et al. Pretransplant use of immune checkpoint inhibitors for hepatocellular carcinoma: A multicenter, retrospective cohort study. Am J Transplant, 2024, 24(10): 1837-1856.
49. Wassmer CH, El Hajji S, Papazarkadas X, et al. Immunotherapy and liver transplantation: A narrative review of basic and clinical data. Cancers (Basel), 2023, 15(18): 4574.
50. Wang R, Zhang Y, Pan Y, et al. Comprehensive investigation of oncogenic driver mutations in Chinese non-small cell lung cancer patients. Oncotarget, 2015, 6(33): 34300-34308.
51. Blumenthal GM, Zhang L, Zhang H, et al. Milestone analyses of immune checkpoint inhibitors, targeted therapy, and conventional therapy in metastatic non-small cell lung cancer trials: A meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol, 2017, 3(8): e171029.
52. Xu J, Shen ZY, Chen XG, et al. A randomized controlled trial of Licartin for preventing hepatoma recurrence after liver transplantation. Hepatology, 2007, 45(2): 269-276.
53. Fahrner R, Dondorf F, Ardelt M, et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma-Factors influencing outcome and disease-free survival. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(42): 12071-12082.
54. Invernizzi F, Iavarone M, Zavaglia C, et al. Experience with early sorafenib treatment with mTOR inhibitors in hepatocellular carcinoma recurring after liver transplantation. Transplantation, 2020, 104(3): 568-574.
55. Truesdale AE, Caldwell SH, Shah NL, et al. Sorafenib therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplant is associated with increased complications after transplant. Transpl Int, 2011, 24(10): 991-998.
56. Iavarone M, Invernizzi F, Czauderna C, et al. Preliminary experience on safety of regorafenib after sorafenib failure in recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma after liver transplantation. Am J Transplant, 2019, 19(11): 3176-3184.
57. Yun JK, Lee GD, Choi S, et al. Comparison between lymph node station- and zone-based classification for the future revision of node descriptors proposed by the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer in surgically resected patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, 2019, 56(5): 849-857.
58. Wang JH, Pfeiffer RM, Musgrove D, et al. Cancer mortality among solid organ transplant recipients in the United States during 1987-2018. Transplantation, 2023, 107(11): 2433-2442.
59. Engels EA, Pfeiffer RM, Fraumeni JF, et al. Spectrum of cancer risk among US solid organ transplant recipients. JAMA, 2011, 306(17): 1891-1901.
60. Hubbard R, Venn A, Lewis S, et al. Lung cancer and cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: A population-based cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000, 161(1): 5-8.
61. Triplette M, Crothers K, Mahale P, et al. Risk of lung cancer in lung transplant recipients in the United States. Am J Transplant, 2019, 19(5): 1478-1490.
62. Chung WS, Lin CL, Hsu WH, et al. Increased risk of lung cancer among patients with bronchiectasis: A nationwide cohort study. QJM, 2016, 109(1): 17-25.
63. Krabbe J, Steffens KM, Drießen S, et al. Lung cancer risk and occupational pulmonary fibrosis: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir Rev, 2024, 33(171): 230224.
64. Silicosis. The Lancet, 2012, 379(9830): 2008-2018.
65. Olland AB, Falcoz PE, Santelmo N, et al. Primary lung cancer in lung transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg, 2014, 98(1): 362-371.

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