Comparative study on cancer epidemiological characteristics and long-term trends between China and the United States_Chinese Journal of Clinical Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery

Authors：

XU Ruifeng ¹ , WANG Hongrui ¹ , CHE Yun ¹ , REN Na ¹ , SUN Xin ¹ , TIAN Yu ² ,  ZHANG Guochao ¹ ,  ZHAO Liang ¹

1. National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100021, P. R. China;
2. School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

ZHANG Guochao, Email: drzhaoliang@126.com; ZHAO Liang, Email: 18801038718@163.com

Keywords：

Cancer statistics; cancer burden; long-term trends; China-US comparison

DOI：

10.7507/1007-4848.202502021

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

In 2025, the American Cancer Society published "Cancer Statistics, 2025", which projected cancer data for the upcoming year based on incidence data collected by central cancer registries (through 2021) and mortality data obtained from the National Center for Health Statistics (through 2022). Similarly, the National Cancer Center of China released "Cancer Incidence and Mortality in China, 2022" in December 2024, analyzing data from over 700 cancer registries across the country. This study provides a comparative analysis of cancer incidence and mortality trends in China and the United States during the same period, with a focus on sex- and age-specific distributions and long-term changes in cancer patterns. Long-term trends indicate that lung and liver cancer mortality rates in China have declined, primarily due to tobacco control measures and hepatitis B vaccination programs. However, the burden of gastric and esophageal cancers remains substantial. In the United States, mortality rates for colorectal and lung cancers have continued to decline, largely attributed to widespread screening programs and advances in immunotherapy. As economic growth and social development, China’s cancer profile is gradually shifting towards patterns observed in countries with high human development index. However, the prevention and control of upper gastrointestinal cancers remains a critical public health challenge that requires further attention.

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3.	Smith RA, Andrews KS, Brooks D, et al. Cancer screening in the United States, 2019: A review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin, 2019, 69(3): 184-210.
4.	Holleczek B, Brenner H. Implications from under-reporting at lifetime, death certificate notifications and trace-back on the recorded incidence of a "newly" established population-based cancer registry. Methods Inf Med, 2016, 55(2): 182-192.
5.	In H, Simon CA, Phillips JL, et al. The quest for population-level cancer recurrence data; current deficiencies and targets for improvement. J Surg Oncol, 2015, 111(6): 657-662.
6.	Tervonen HE, Roder D, Morrell S, et al. Does exclusion of cancers registered only from death-certificate information diminish socio-demographic disparities in recorded survival? Cancer Epidemiol, 2017, 48: 70-77.
7.	Park ER, Gareen IF, Japuntich S, et al. Primary care provider-delivered smoking cessation interventions and smoking cessation among participants in the national lung screening trial. JAMA Intern Med, 2015, 175(9): 1509-1516.
8.	Warren GW, Ward KD. Integration of tobacco cessation services into multidisciplinary lung cancer care: Rationale, state of the art, and future directions. Transl Lung Cancer Res, 2015, 4(4): 339-352.
9.	Daly ME, Singh N, Ismaila N, et al. Management of stageⅢ non-small-cell lung cancer: ASCO guideline. J Clin Oncol, 2022, 40(12): 1356-1384.
10.	Guo Y, Zeng H, Zheng R, et al. The association between lung cancer incidence and ambient air pollution in China: A spatiotemporal analysis. Environ Res, 2016, 144(Pt A): 60-65.
11.	Hu J, Qian GS, Bai CX, et al. Chinese consensus on early diagnosis of primary lung cancer (2014 version). Cancer, 2015, 121(Suppl 17): 3157-3164.
12.	Xing DF, Xu CD, Liao XY, et al. Spatial association between outdoor air pollution and lung cancer incidence in China. BMC Public Health, 2019, 19(1): 1377.
13.	Montminy EM, Karlitz JJ, Landreneau SW. Progress of colorectal cancer screening in United States: Past achievements and future challenges. Prev Med, 2019, 120: 78-84.
14.	Chen H, Li N, Ren J, et al. Participation and yield of a population-based colorectal cancer screening programme in China. Gut, 2019, 68(8): 1450-1457.
15.	Gong Y, Peng P, Bao P, et al. The implementation and first-round results of a community-based colorectal cancer screening program in Shanghai, China. Oncologist, 2018, 23(8): 928-935.
16.	Zou XN. Epidemic trend, screening, and early detection and treatment of cancer in Chinese population. Cancer Biol Med, 2017, 14(1): 50-59.
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18.	Wu X, Chen L, Cheng J, et al. Effect of dietary salt intake on risk of gastric cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Nutrients, 2022, 14(20): 4260.
19.	Wu Y, Su T, Zhou X, et al. Awareness and attitudes regarding Helicobacter pylori infection in Chinese physicians and public population: A national cross-sectional survey. Helicobacter, 2020, 25(4): e12705.
20.	Zhu Y, Zhou X, Wu J, et al. Risk factors and prevalence of helicobacter pylori infection in persistent high incidence area of gastric carcinoma in Yangzhong City. Gastroenterol Res Pract, 2014, 2014: 481365.
21.	Yonghao G, Jin X, Jun L, et al. An epidemiological serosurvey of hepatitis B virus shows evidence of declining prevalence due to hepatitis B vaccination in central China. Int J Infect Dis, 2015, 40: 75-80.
22.	Liu Z, Li M, Hutton DW, et al. Impact of the national hepatitis B immunization program in China: A modeling study. Infect Dis Poverty, 2022, 11(1): 106.
23.	Feng X, Huang N, Wu Y, et al. Alcoholic liver disease in China: A disease influenced by complex social factors that should not be neglected. J Clin Transl Hepatol, 2024, 12(7): 677-684.
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26.	Roganovic D, Djilas D, Vujnovic S, et al. Breast MRI, digital mammography and breast tomosynthesis: Comparison of three methods for early detection of breast cancer. Bosn J Basic Med Sci, 2015, 15(4): 64-68.
27.	Liao Y, Ye L, Cai Q, et al. Status and influencing factors of knowledge, attitudes and practices relating to screening for breast and cervical cancer among rural women aged 40-65 years in China: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 2024, 14(10): e080945.
28.	Lili X, Zhiyu L, Yinglan W, et al. Analysis of breast cancer cases according to county-level poverty status in 3.5 million rural women who participated in a breast cancer screening program of Hunan Province, China from 2016 to 2018. Medicine (Baltimore), 2020, 99(17): e19954.
29.	Wen X, Wen D, Yang Y, et al. Urban-rural disparity in cervical cancer in China and feasible interventions for tackling the rural excess. Medicine (Baltimore), 2019, 98(1): e13907.
30.	Pizzato M, Li M, Vignat J, et al. The epidemiological landscape of thyroid cancer worldwide: GLOBOCAN estimates for incidence and mortality rates in 2020. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2022, 10(4): 264-272.
31.	Wang S, Ji Y, Ren M, et al. Estimating the proportion of overdiagnosis among prostate, breast, and thyroid cancers in China: Findings from the global burden of disease 2019. Curr Oncol, 2024, 31(9): 5643-5651.
32.	Yang J, Xu R, Wang C, et al. Early screening and diagnosis strategies of pancreatic cancer: A comprehensive review. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2021, 41(12): 1257-1274.
33.	Basch E, Oliver TK, Vickers A, et al. Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen testing: American Society of Clinical Oncology provisional clinical opinion. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30(24): 3020-3025.
34.	Xia C, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. Provincial-level cancer burden attributable to active and second-hand smoking in China. Tob Control, 2019, 28(6): 669-675.
35.	Xiao Y, Shao Y, Yu X, et al. The epidemic status and risk factors of lung cancer in Xuanwei City, Yunnan Province, China. Front Med, 2012, 6(4): 388-394.
36.	Li Y, Shi J, Yu S, et al. Effect of socioeconomic status on stage at diagnosis of lung cancer in a hospital-based multicenter retrospective clinical epidemiological study in China, 2005-2014. Cancer Med, 2017, 6(10): 2440-2452.
37.	Zeng H, Ran X, An L, et al. Disparities in stage at diagnosis for five common cancers in China: A multicentre, hospital-based, observational study. Lancet Public Health, 2021, 6(12): e877-e887.
38.	Qiao X, Cui Y, Ma C, et al. Incidence trends and spatial distribution of thyroid cancer in the Chinese female population from 1990 to 2019. Asia Pac J Oncol Nurs, 2024, 11(7): 100529.
39.	Zevallos JP, Hartman CM, Kramer JR, et al. Increased thyroid cancer incidence corresponds to increased use of thyroid ultrasound and fine-needle aspiration: A study of the Veterans Affairs health care system. Cancer, 2015, 121(5): 741-746.
40.	Michal Freedman D, Kitahara CM, Linet MS, et al. Ambient temperature and risk of first primary basal cell carcinoma: A nationwide United States cohort study. J Photochem Photobiol B, 2015, 148: 284-289.
41.	Cao W, Qin K, Li F, et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in cancer incidence and mortality: An analysis of GLOBOCAN 2022. Chin Med J (Engl), 2024, 137(12): 1407-1413.
42.	McCormack VA, Boffetta P. Today's lifestyles, tomorrow's cancers: Trends in lifestyle risk factors for cancer in low- and middle-income countries. Ann Oncol, 2011, 22(11): 2349-2357.
43.	Garcia-Estevez L, Moreno-Bueno G. Updating the role of obesity and cholesterol in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res, 2019, 21(1): 35.
44.	Guy GP, Jr. , Thomas CC, Thompson T, et al. Vital signs: Melanoma incidence and mortality trends and projections: United States, 1982-2030. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015, 64(21): 591-596.
45.	Buller DB, Cokkinides V, Hall HI, et al. Prevalence of sunburn, sun protection, and indoor tanning behaviors among Americans: Review from national surveys and case studies of 3 states. J Am Acad Dermatol, 2011, 65(5 Suppl 1): S114-S123.
46.	Allen NE, Tsilidis KK, Key TJ, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of endometrial carcinoma among postmenopausal women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Epidemiol, 2010, 172(12): 1394-1403.
47.	Goodchild M, Zheng R. Early assessment of China's 2015 tobacco tax increase. Bull World Health Organ, 2018, 96(7): 506-512.
48.	Levy DT, Li Y, Yuan Z. Impact of nations meeting the MPOWER targets between 2014 and 2016: An update. Tob Control, 2020, 29(2): 231-233.
49.	Wen J, Shang W, Ding Y, et al. China's smoke-free policies in public place and the smoking cessation status of smokers. Tob Use Insights, 2023, 16: 1179173X231171483.
50.	Knepper TC, Saller J, Walko CM. Novel and expanded oncology drug approvals of 2016-PART 1: New options in solid tumor management. Oncology (Williston Park). 2017, 31(2): 110-121.
51.	Li C, Bai L, Wang H, et al. Characteristics of indoor and outdoor Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in TSP in rural Northeast China: A case study of heating and non-heating periods. J Environ Health Sci Eng, 2022, 20(2): 899-913.
52.	He F, Wang J, Liu L, et al. Esophageal cancer: Trends in incidence and mortality in China from 2005 to 2015. Cancer Med, 2021, 10(5): 1839-1847.
53.	Wang SM, Fan JH, Jia MM, et al. Body mass index and long-term risk of death from esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in a Chinese population. Thorac Cancer, 2016, 7(4): 387-392.
54.	Chen Q, Yu L, Hao C, et al. Effectiveness evaluation of organized screening for esophageal cancer: A case-control study in Linzhou city, China. Sci Rep, 2016, 6: 35707.
55.	Liu M, He Z, Guo C, et al. Effectiveness of intensive endoscopic screening for esophageal cancer in China: A community-based study. Am J Epidemiol, 2019, 188(4): 776-784.
56.	Zheng X, Mao X, Xu K, et al. Massive endoscopic screening for esophageal and gastric cancers in a high-risk area of China. PLoS One, 2015, 10(12): e0145097.
57.	Li C, Yu C, Wang P. An age-period-cohort analysis of female breast cancer mortality from 1990-2009 in China. Int J Equity Health, 2015, 14: 76.
58.	Zhang Q, Liu LY, Wang F, et al. The changes in female physical and childbearing characteristics in China and potential association with risk of breast cancer. BMC Public Health, 2012, 12: 368.
59.	Li Y, Wang J, Ma X, et al. A review of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Int J Biol Sci, 2016, 12(8): 1022-1031.
60.	Zhang YQ, Guo JS. Antiviral therapies for hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(13): 3860-3866.
61.	Paik JM, Golabi P, Biswas R, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and alcoholic liver disease are major drivers of liver mortality in the United States. Hepatol Commun, 2020, 4(6): 890-903.
62.	Ganne-Carrié N, Nahon P. Hepatocellular carcinoma in the setting of alcohol-related liver disease. J Hepatol, 2019, 70(2): 284-293.
63.	Zhou B, Wu D, Liu H, et al. Obesity and pancreatic cancer: An update of epidemiological evidence and molecular mechanisms. Pancreatology, 2019, 19(7): 941-950.
64.	Tsai HJ, Chang JS. Environmental risk factors of pancreatic cancer. J Clin Med, 2019, 8(9): 1427.
65.	Cao W, Qin K, Li F, et al. Comparative study of cancer profiles between 2020 and 2022 using global cancer statistics (GLOBOCAN). J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(2): 128-134.

1. Siegel RL, Kratzer TB, Giaquinto AN, et al. Cancer statistics, 2025. CA Cancer J Clin, 2025, 75(1): 10-45.
2. Han B, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2022. J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(1): 47-53.
3. Smith RA, Andrews KS, Brooks D, et al. Cancer screening in the United States, 2019: A review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin, 2019, 69(3): 184-210.
4. Holleczek B, Brenner H. Implications from under-reporting at lifetime, death certificate notifications and trace-back on the recorded incidence of a "newly" established population-based cancer registry. Methods Inf Med, 2016, 55(2): 182-192.
5. In H, Simon CA, Phillips JL, et al. The quest for population-level cancer recurrence data; current deficiencies and targets for improvement. J Surg Oncol, 2015, 111(6): 657-662.
6. Tervonen HE, Roder D, Morrell S, et al. Does exclusion of cancers registered only from death-certificate information diminish socio-demographic disparities in recorded survival? Cancer Epidemiol, 2017, 48: 70-77.
7. Park ER, Gareen IF, Japuntich S, et al. Primary care provider-delivered smoking cessation interventions and smoking cessation among participants in the national lung screening trial. JAMA Intern Med, 2015, 175(9): 1509-1516.
8. Warren GW, Ward KD. Integration of tobacco cessation services into multidisciplinary lung cancer care: Rationale, state of the art, and future directions. Transl Lung Cancer Res, 2015, 4(4): 339-352.
9. Daly ME, Singh N, Ismaila N, et al. Management of stageⅢ non-small-cell lung cancer: ASCO guideline. J Clin Oncol, 2022, 40(12): 1356-1384.
10. Guo Y, Zeng H, Zheng R, et al. The association between lung cancer incidence and ambient air pollution in China: A spatiotemporal analysis. Environ Res, 2016, 144(Pt A): 60-65.
11. Hu J, Qian GS, Bai CX, et al. Chinese consensus on early diagnosis of primary lung cancer (2014 version). Cancer, 2015, 121(Suppl 17): 3157-3164.
12. Xing DF, Xu CD, Liao XY, et al. Spatial association between outdoor air pollution and lung cancer incidence in China. BMC Public Health, 2019, 19(1): 1377.
13. Montminy EM, Karlitz JJ, Landreneau SW. Progress of colorectal cancer screening in United States: Past achievements and future challenges. Prev Med, 2019, 120: 78-84.
14. Chen H, Li N, Ren J, et al. Participation and yield of a population-based colorectal cancer screening programme in China. Gut, 2019, 68(8): 1450-1457.
15. Gong Y, Peng P, Bao P, et al. The implementation and first-round results of a community-based colorectal cancer screening program in Shanghai, China. Oncologist, 2018, 23(8): 928-935.
16. Zou XN. Epidemic trend, screening, and early detection and treatment of cancer in Chinese population. Cancer Biol Med, 2017, 14(1): 50-59.
17. Chiang TH, Cheng HC, Chuang SL, et al. Mass screening and eradication of Helicobacter pylori as the policy recommendations for gastric cancer prevention. J Formos Med Assoc, 2022, 121(12): 2378-2392.
18. Wu X, Chen L, Cheng J, et al. Effect of dietary salt intake on risk of gastric cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies. Nutrients, 2022, 14(20): 4260.
19. Wu Y, Su T, Zhou X, et al. Awareness and attitudes regarding Helicobacter pylori infection in Chinese physicians and public population: A national cross-sectional survey. Helicobacter, 2020, 25(4): e12705.
20. Zhu Y, Zhou X, Wu J, et al. Risk factors and prevalence of helicobacter pylori infection in persistent high incidence area of gastric carcinoma in Yangzhong City. Gastroenterol Res Pract, 2014, 2014: 481365.
21. Yonghao G, Jin X, Jun L, et al. An epidemiological serosurvey of hepatitis B virus shows evidence of declining prevalence due to hepatitis B vaccination in central China. Int J Infect Dis, 2015, 40: 75-80.
22. Liu Z, Li M, Hutton DW, et al. Impact of the national hepatitis B immunization program in China: A modeling study. Infect Dis Poverty, 2022, 11(1): 106.
23. Feng X, Huang N, Wu Y, et al. Alcoholic liver disease in China: A disease influenced by complex social factors that should not be neglected. J Clin Transl Hepatol, 2024, 12(7): 677-684.
24. Monticciolo DL, Malak SF, Friedewald SM, et al. Breast cancer screening recommendations inclusive of all women at average risk: Update from the ACR and Society of Breast Imaging. J Am Coll Radiol, 2021, 18(9): 1280-1288.
25. Monticciolo DL, Newell MS, Hendrick RE, et al. Breast cancer screening for average-risk women: Recommendations from the ACR Commission on Breast Imaging. J Am Coll Radiol, 2017, 14(9): 1137-1143.
26. Roganovic D, Djilas D, Vujnovic S, et al. Breast MRI, digital mammography and breast tomosynthesis: Comparison of three methods for early detection of breast cancer. Bosn J Basic Med Sci, 2015, 15(4): 64-68.
27. Liao Y, Ye L, Cai Q, et al. Status and influencing factors of knowledge, attitudes and practices relating to screening for breast and cervical cancer among rural women aged 40-65 years in China: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 2024, 14(10): e080945.
28. Lili X, Zhiyu L, Yinglan W, et al. Analysis of breast cancer cases according to county-level poverty status in 3.5 million rural women who participated in a breast cancer screening program of Hunan Province, China from 2016 to 2018. Medicine (Baltimore), 2020, 99(17): e19954.
29. Wen X, Wen D, Yang Y, et al. Urban-rural disparity in cervical cancer in China and feasible interventions for tackling the rural excess. Medicine (Baltimore), 2019, 98(1): e13907.
30. Pizzato M, Li M, Vignat J, et al. The epidemiological landscape of thyroid cancer worldwide: GLOBOCAN estimates for incidence and mortality rates in 2020. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol, 2022, 10(4): 264-272.
31. Wang S, Ji Y, Ren M, et al. Estimating the proportion of overdiagnosis among prostate, breast, and thyroid cancers in China: Findings from the global burden of disease 2019. Curr Oncol, 2024, 31(9): 5643-5651.
32. Yang J, Xu R, Wang C, et al. Early screening and diagnosis strategies of pancreatic cancer: A comprehensive review. Cancer Commun (Lond), 2021, 41(12): 1257-1274.
33. Basch E, Oliver TK, Vickers A, et al. Screening for prostate cancer with prostate-specific antigen testing: American Society of Clinical Oncology provisional clinical opinion. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30(24): 3020-3025.
34. Xia C, Zheng R, Zeng H, et al. Provincial-level cancer burden attributable to active and second-hand smoking in China. Tob Control, 2019, 28(6): 669-675.
35. Xiao Y, Shao Y, Yu X, et al. The epidemic status and risk factors of lung cancer in Xuanwei City, Yunnan Province, China. Front Med, 2012, 6(4): 388-394.
36. Li Y, Shi J, Yu S, et al. Effect of socioeconomic status on stage at diagnosis of lung cancer in a hospital-based multicenter retrospective clinical epidemiological study in China, 2005-2014. Cancer Med, 2017, 6(10): 2440-2452.
37. Zeng H, Ran X, An L, et al. Disparities in stage at diagnosis for five common cancers in China: A multicentre, hospital-based, observational study. Lancet Public Health, 2021, 6(12): e877-e887.
38. Qiao X, Cui Y, Ma C, et al. Incidence trends and spatial distribution of thyroid cancer in the Chinese female population from 1990 to 2019. Asia Pac J Oncol Nurs, 2024, 11(7): 100529.
39. Zevallos JP, Hartman CM, Kramer JR, et al. Increased thyroid cancer incidence corresponds to increased use of thyroid ultrasound and fine-needle aspiration: A study of the Veterans Affairs health care system. Cancer, 2015, 121(5): 741-746.
40. Michal Freedman D, Kitahara CM, Linet MS, et al. Ambient temperature and risk of first primary basal cell carcinoma: A nationwide United States cohort study. J Photochem Photobiol B, 2015, 148: 284-289.
41. Cao W, Qin K, Li F, et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in cancer incidence and mortality: An analysis of GLOBOCAN 2022. Chin Med J (Engl), 2024, 137(12): 1407-1413.
42. McCormack VA, Boffetta P. Today's lifestyles, tomorrow's cancers: Trends in lifestyle risk factors for cancer in low- and middle-income countries. Ann Oncol, 2011, 22(11): 2349-2357.
43. Garcia-Estevez L, Moreno-Bueno G. Updating the role of obesity and cholesterol in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res, 2019, 21(1): 35.
44. Guy GP, Jr. , Thomas CC, Thompson T, et al. Vital signs: Melanoma incidence and mortality trends and projections: United States, 1982-2030. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015, 64(21): 591-596.
45. Buller DB, Cokkinides V, Hall HI, et al. Prevalence of sunburn, sun protection, and indoor tanning behaviors among Americans: Review from national surveys and case studies of 3 states. J Am Acad Dermatol, 2011, 65(5 Suppl 1): S114-S123.
46. Allen NE, Tsilidis KK, Key TJ, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of endometrial carcinoma among postmenopausal women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Epidemiol, 2010, 172(12): 1394-1403.
47. Goodchild M, Zheng R. Early assessment of China's 2015 tobacco tax increase. Bull World Health Organ, 2018, 96(7): 506-512.
48. Levy DT, Li Y, Yuan Z. Impact of nations meeting the MPOWER targets between 2014 and 2016: An update. Tob Control, 2020, 29(2): 231-233.
49. Wen J, Shang W, Ding Y, et al. China's smoke-free policies in public place and the smoking cessation status of smokers. Tob Use Insights, 2023, 16: 1179173X231171483.
50. Knepper TC, Saller J, Walko CM. Novel and expanded oncology drug approvals of 2016-PART 1: New options in solid tumor management. Oncology (Williston Park). 2017, 31(2): 110-121.
51. Li C, Bai L, Wang H, et al. Characteristics of indoor and outdoor Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in TSP in rural Northeast China: A case study of heating and non-heating periods. J Environ Health Sci Eng, 2022, 20(2): 899-913.
52. He F, Wang J, Liu L, et al. Esophageal cancer: Trends in incidence and mortality in China from 2005 to 2015. Cancer Med, 2021, 10(5): 1839-1847.
53. Wang SM, Fan JH, Jia MM, et al. Body mass index and long-term risk of death from esophageal squamous cell carcinoma in a Chinese population. Thorac Cancer, 2016, 7(4): 387-392.
54. Chen Q, Yu L, Hao C, et al. Effectiveness evaluation of organized screening for esophageal cancer: A case-control study in Linzhou city, China. Sci Rep, 2016, 6: 35707.
55. Liu M, He Z, Guo C, et al. Effectiveness of intensive endoscopic screening for esophageal cancer in China: A community-based study. Am J Epidemiol, 2019, 188(4): 776-784.
56. Zheng X, Mao X, Xu K, et al. Massive endoscopic screening for esophageal and gastric cancers in a high-risk area of China. PLoS One, 2015, 10(12): e0145097.
57. Li C, Yu C, Wang P. An age-period-cohort analysis of female breast cancer mortality from 1990-2009 in China. Int J Equity Health, 2015, 14: 76.
58. Zhang Q, Liu LY, Wang F, et al. The changes in female physical and childbearing characteristics in China and potential association with risk of breast cancer. BMC Public Health, 2012, 12: 368.
59. Li Y, Wang J, Ma X, et al. A review of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer. Int J Biol Sci, 2016, 12(8): 1022-1031.
60. Zhang YQ, Guo JS. Antiviral therapies for hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol, 2015, 21(13): 3860-3866.
61. Paik JM, Golabi P, Biswas R, et al. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and alcoholic liver disease are major drivers of liver mortality in the United States. Hepatol Commun, 2020, 4(6): 890-903.
62. Ganne-Carrié N, Nahon P. Hepatocellular carcinoma in the setting of alcohol-related liver disease. J Hepatol, 2019, 70(2): 284-293.
63. Zhou B, Wu D, Liu H, et al. Obesity and pancreatic cancer: An update of epidemiological evidence and molecular mechanisms. Pancreatology, 2019, 19(7): 941-950.
64. Tsai HJ, Chang JS. Environmental risk factors of pancreatic cancer. J Clin Med, 2019, 8(9): 1427.
65. Cao W, Qin K, Li F, et al. Comparative study of cancer profiles between 2020 and 2022 using global cancer statistics (GLOBOCAN). J Natl Cancer Cent, 2024, 4(2): 128-134.

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