迷走神经刺激术治疗儿童难治性癫痫的研究进展_Journal of Epilepsy

Authors：

曹艺耀 ¹ , 熊金彪 ¹ ,  杨卫东 ¹ , 毓青 ² ,  陈旨娟 ¹

1. ;
2. ;

Corresponding author：

杨卫东, Email: yangweidongshine@sina.com; 陈旨娟, Email: hapzhijuan0217@126.com

Keywords：

迷走神经刺激术; 儿童; 癫痫; 药物难治性癫痫

DOI：

10.7507/2096-0247.20190061

Video：

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自 1997 年美国食物药物管理局批准迷走神经刺激术（Vagus nerve stimulation，VNS）作为≥12 岁难治局灶性癫痫患者的辅助治疗以来，VNS 因其有效性、相对安全性被广泛应用。但大部分研究主要针对成年药物难治性癫痫（Drug refractory epilepsy，DRE）患者，儿童是 DRE 的高发人群，癫痫发作对患儿生长发育、社会适应甚至家庭情况等有很大影响，随着 VNS 治疗 DRE 患儿的研究不断增多，已有研究证实 VNS 能有效控制患儿癫痫发作。为了解近年来 VNS 治疗 DRE 患儿的进展，现主要从 VNS 控制 DRE 患儿的发作机制、手术方式、术后评估等方面进行综述。

Citation： 曹艺耀, 熊金彪, 杨卫东, 毓青, 陈旨娟. 迷走神经刺激术治疗儿童难治性癫痫的研究进展. Journal of Epilepsy, 2019, 5(5): 376-381. doi: 10.7507/2096-0247.20190061 Copy

1.	Wheless JW, Gienapp AJ, Ryvlin P. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy update. Epilepsy &Behavior, 2018, 88(6): 2-10.
2.	Eriksson KJ, Koivikko MJ. Prevalence, classification, and severity of epilepsy and epileptic syndromes in children. Epilepsia, 1997, 38(12): 1275-1282.
3.	Holmes GL, Lenck-Santim PP. Role of interictal epileptiform abnormalities in cognitive impairment. Epilepsy&Behavior, 2006, 8(3): 504-515.
4.	Ibrahim GM, Morgan BR, Lee W, et al. Impaired development of intrinsic connectivity networks in children with medically intractable localization-related epilepsy. Hum Brain Mapp, 2015, 35(11): 5686-5700.
5.	Berg AT, Zelko FA, Levy SR, et al. Age at onset of epilepsy, pharmacoresistance, and cognitive outcomes a prospective cohort study. Neurology, 2012, 79(3): 1384-1391.
6.	Orosz I, McCormick D, Zamponi N, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a european long-term study up to 24 months in 347 children. Epilepsia, 2014, 55(10): 1576-1584.
7.	Fan HC, Hsu TR, Chang KP, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for 6- to 12-year-old children with refractory epilepsy: impact on seizure frequency and parenting stress index. Epilepsy &Behavior, 2018, 83(6): 119-123.
8.	The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology, 1995, 45(2): 224-230.
9.	Fornai F, Ruffoli R, Giorgi FS, et al. The role of locus coeruleus in the antiepileptic activity induced by vagus nerve stimulation. Eur J Neurosci, 2011, 33(7): 2169-2178.
10.	Schevernels H, van Bochove ME, De Taeye L, et al. The effect of vagus nerve stimulation on response inhibition. Epilepsy Behav, 2016, 64(Pt A): 171-179.
11.	Klinkenberg S, van den Borne CJ, Aalbers MW, et al. The effects of vagus nerve stimulation on tryptophan metabolites in children with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 37(8): 133-138.
12.	Hachem LD, Wong SM, Ibrahim GM. The vagus afferent network: emerging role in translational connectomics. Neurosurg Focus, 2018, 45(8): E2.
13.	Yu R, Verschuure P, Kessels AG, et al. Interregional metabolic connectivity of 2-deoxy-2[(18) F]fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography in vagus nerve stimulation for pediatric patients with epilepsy: a retrospective cross-sectional study. Epilepsia, 2018, 59(4): 2249-2259.
14.	De Herdt V, Leenen L, Rijkers K, et al. Effects of vagus nerve stimulation on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine induction in patients with refractory epilepsy. J Neuroimmunol, 2009, 214(6): 104-108.
15.	Majoie HJ, Rijkers K, Berfelo MW, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in refractory epilepsy: effects on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood. Neuroimmunomodulation, 2011, 18(1): 52-56.
16.	Koopman FA, Chavan SS, Miljko S, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation inhibits cytokine production and attenuates disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2016, 113(7): 8284-8289.
17.	McGregor A, Wheless T, Baumgartner J, et al. Right-sided vagus nerve stimulation as a treatment for refractory epilepsy in humans. Epilepsia, 2005, 46(3): 91-96.
18.	Amar AP, Marotta G, Visani E, et al. An institutional experience with cervical vagus nerve trunk stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy: rationale, technique, and outcome. Neurosurgery, 1998, 43(6): 1265-1276.
19.	Kirse DJ, Rolston JD, Harward SC, et al. Vagus nerve stimulator implantation in children. Arch Otolaryngol, 2002, 128(7): 1263-1268.
20.	Vaiman M, Heyman E, Lotan G. Neurological results of the modified treatment of epilepsy by stimulation of the vagus nerve. Childs Nerv Syst, 2017, 33(2): 2017-2022.
21.	Hauptman JS, Mathern GW. Vagal nerve stimulation for pharmacoresistant epilepsy in children. Surg Neurol Int, 2012, 3(suppl): 269-274.
22.	Lotan G, Vaiman M. Treatment of epilepsy by stimulation of the vagus nerve from head-and-neck surgical point of view. The Laryngoscope, 2015, 125(3): 1352-1355.
23.	Bodin E, Le Moing AG, Bourel-Ponchel E, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in 29 children. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 20(3): 346-351.
24.	Yowtak J, Jenkins P, Giller C. Transection of omohyoid muscle as an aid during vagus nerve stimulator implantation. World Neurosurgery, 2017, 99(3): 118-121.
25.	Kawai K, Tanaka T, Baba H, et al. Outcome of vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: the first three years of a prospective Japanese registry. Epileptic Disord, 2017, 19(3): 327-338.
26.	Barbella G, Cocco I, Freri E, et al. Transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulatio (t-VNS): an adjunctive treatment option for refractory epilepsy. Seizure, 2018, 60(8): 115-119.
27.	Chambers A, Bowen JM. Electrical stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser, 2013, 13(8): 1-37.
28.	Frost M, Forster CR, Baise C, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia, 2001, 42(5): 1148-1152.
29.	Cukiert A, Cukiert CM, Burattini JA, et al. A prospective long-term study on the outcome after vagus nerve stimulation at maximally tolerated current intensity in a cohort of children with refractory secondary generalized epilepsy. Neuromodulation, 2013, 16(6): 30-31.
30.	Klinkenberg S, Watemberg N, Boxer M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial. Dev Med Child Neurol, 2012, 54(5): 855-861.
31.	Menascu S, Kremer U, Schiller Y, et al. The Israeli retrospective multicenter open-label study evaluating vagus nerve stimulation efficacy in children and adults. Israel Medical Association Journal, 2013, 15(11): 673-677.
32.	Colicchio G, Mangano FT, Gonsalves C, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsies in different age, aetiology and duration. Child Nerv Syst, 2010, 26(7): 811-819.
33.	Arya R, Greiner HM, Lewis A, et al. Predictors of response to vagus nerve stimulation in childhood-onset medically refractory epilepsy. Journal of Child Neurology, 2014, 29(12): 1652-1659.
34.	Tomei KL, Mau CY, GhaliM, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy in Angelman syndrome: a series of three cases. Childs Nerv Syst, 2018, 34(6): 395-400.
35.	Serdaroglu A, Connolly MB, French J, et al. Long term effect of vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric intractable epilepsy: an extended follow-up. Childs Nerv Syst, 2016, 32(2): 641-646.
36.	Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia, 2017, 58(4): 512-521.
37.	Englot DJ, Chang EF, AugusteKI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response A review. Journal of Neurosurgery, 2011, 115(8): 1248-1255.
38.	Morris GL, Bouthiller A, Scavarda D, et al. Evidence-based guideline update: vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: report of the guideline development subcommittee of the american academy of neurology. Epilepsy Curr, 2013, 13(4): 297-303.
39.	Dravet C, Oguni H. Dravet syndrome (severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy). Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013, 111: 627-633.
40.	Zamponi N, Passamonti C, Cappanera S, et al. Clinical course of young patients with Dravet syndrome after vagal nerve stimulation. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2011, 15(1): 8-14.
41.	Rossignol E, Lortie A, Thomas T, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric epileptic syndromes. Seizure, 2009, 18(1): 34-37.
42.	Shahwan A, Bailey C, Maxiner W, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in children: more to VNS than seizure frequency reduction. Epilepsia, 2009, 50(5): 1220-1228.
43.	Cerminara C, Marciano S, Bombardieri R, et al. Epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis complex. Journal of Pediatric Epilepsy, 2015, 5(1): 64-69.
44.	Curatolo P, Bombardieri R, Jozwiak S. Tuberous sclerosis. The Lancet, 2008, 372(4): 657-668.
45.	Lagae L, Verstrepen A, Nada A, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with drug-resistant epilepsy: age at implantation and shorter duration of epilepsy as predictors of better efficacy? Epileptic Disorders, 2015, 17(3): 308-314.
46.	Zamponi N, Petrelli C, Passamonti C, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis. Pediatric Neurology, 2009, 43(3): 29-34.
47.	Elliott RE, Carlson C, Kalhorn SP, et al. Refractory epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis: vagus nerve stimulation with or without subsequent resective surgery. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2009, 16(3): 454-460.
48.	Hunter RM, Van Roost D, Thiery E, et al. The health, education, and social care costs of school-aged children with active epilepsy: a population-based study. Epilepsia, 2015, 56(4): 1056-1064.
49.	Laxer KD, Trinka E, Hirsch LJ, et al. The consequences of refractory epilepsy and its treatment. Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 37(1): 59-70.
50.	Patel A, Wang L, Gedela S. Health care utilization following vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric epilepsy patients from a pediatric accountable care organization. Journal of Child Neurology, 2018, 33(3): 136-139.
51.	Aburahma SK, Alzoubi FQ, Hammouri HM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in a developing country: a long term follow up study and cost utility analysis. Seizure, 2015, 25(6): 167-172.
52.	Helmers SL, Duh MS, Guérin A, et al. Clinical outcomes, quality of life, and costs associated with implantation of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 16(5): 449-458.
53.	Jette N, Engel JJr. Refractory epilepsy is a life-threatening disease: lest we forget. Neurology, 2016, 86(3): 1932-1933.
54.	Sherman EM, Connolly MB, Slick DJ, et al. Quality of life and seizure outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy. J Child Neurol, 2008, 23(9): 991-998.
55.	Terra VC, Furlanetti LL, Nunes AA, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric patients: is it really worthwhile? Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 31(2): 329-333.
56.	Ryzi M, Brázdil M, Novák Z, et al. Long-term vagus nerve stimulation in children with focal epilepsy. Acta neurologica Scandinavica, 2013, 127(5): 316-322.
57.	Thompson EM, Wozniak SE, Roberts CM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for partial and generalized epilepsy from infancy to adolescence. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2012, 10(3): 200-205.
58.	Majkowska-Zwolinska B, Zwolinski P, Roszkowski M, et al. Long-term results of vagus nerve stimulation in children and adolescents with drug-resistant epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst, 2012, 28(3): 621-628.
59.	Elliott RE, Rodgers SD, Bassani L, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for children with treatment-resistant epilepsy: a consecutive series of 141 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2011, 7(5): 491-500.
60.	Van Wagoner ZD, Evans DC, Askegard-Giesmann JR, et al. Perforated peptic ulcer in a child with a vagus nerve stimulator for seizure control. Brain Stimul, 2013, 6(1): 972-973.
61.	Sheck L, Meyer HD. Episodic monocular vision loss after implantation of a vagal nerve stimulator. Ann Intern Med, 2011, 155(8): 648-649.
62.	Rychlicki F, Zamponi N, Cesaroni E, et al. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. Neurosurg Rev, 2006, 29(2): 103-107.
63.	Cantarin-Extremera V, Ruíz-Falcó-Rojas ML, Tamaríz-Martel-Moreno A, et al. Late-onset periodic bradycardia during vagus nerve stimulation in a pediatric patient: a new case and review of the literature. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 20(4): 678-683.
64.	Clark AJ, Kuperman RA, Auguste KI, et al. Intractable episodic bradycardia resulting from progressive lead traction in an epileptic child with a vagus nerve stimulator: a delayed complication. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2012, 9(2): 389-393.
65.	Borusiak P, Zilbauer M, Cagnoli S, et al. Late-onset cardiac arrhythmia associated with vagus nerve stimulation. J Neurol, 2009, 256(10): 1578-1580.
66.	Amark P, Stodberg T, Wallstedt L. Late onset bradyarrhythmia during vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsia, 2007, 48(5): 1023-1024.
67.	Fernandez L, Gedela S, Tamber M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children less tran 3 years with medically intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res, 2015, 112(5): 37-42.

1. Wheless JW, Gienapp AJ, Ryvlin P. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy update. Epilepsy &Behavior, 2018, 88(6): 2-10.
2. Eriksson KJ, Koivikko MJ. Prevalence, classification, and severity of epilepsy and epileptic syndromes in children. Epilepsia, 1997, 38(12): 1275-1282.
3. Holmes GL, Lenck-Santim PP. Role of interictal epileptiform abnormalities in cognitive impairment. Epilepsy&Behavior, 2006, 8(3): 504-515.
4. Ibrahim GM, Morgan BR, Lee W, et al. Impaired development of intrinsic connectivity networks in children with medically intractable localization-related epilepsy. Hum Brain Mapp, 2015, 35(11): 5686-5700.
5. Berg AT, Zelko FA, Levy SR, et al. Age at onset of epilepsy, pharmacoresistance, and cognitive outcomes a prospective cohort study. Neurology, 2012, 79(3): 1384-1391.
6. Orosz I, McCormick D, Zamponi N, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a european long-term study up to 24 months in 347 children. Epilepsia, 2014, 55(10): 1576-1584.
7. Fan HC, Hsu TR, Chang KP, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for 6- to 12-year-old children with refractory epilepsy: impact on seizure frequency and parenting stress index. Epilepsy &Behavior, 2018, 83(6): 119-123.
8. The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology, 1995, 45(2): 224-230.
9. Fornai F, Ruffoli R, Giorgi FS, et al. The role of locus coeruleus in the antiepileptic activity induced by vagus nerve stimulation. Eur J Neurosci, 2011, 33(7): 2169-2178.
10. Schevernels H, van Bochove ME, De Taeye L, et al. The effect of vagus nerve stimulation on response inhibition. Epilepsy Behav, 2016, 64(Pt A): 171-179.
11. Klinkenberg S, van den Borne CJ, Aalbers MW, et al. The effects of vagus nerve stimulation on tryptophan metabolites in children with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 37(8): 133-138.
12. Hachem LD, Wong SM, Ibrahim GM. The vagus afferent network: emerging role in translational connectomics. Neurosurg Focus, 2018, 45(8): E2.
13. Yu R, Verschuure P, Kessels AG, et al. Interregional metabolic connectivity of 2-deoxy-2[(18) F]fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography in vagus nerve stimulation for pediatric patients with epilepsy: a retrospective cross-sectional study. Epilepsia, 2018, 59(4): 2249-2259.
14. De Herdt V, Leenen L, Rijkers K, et al. Effects of vagus nerve stimulation on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine induction in patients with refractory epilepsy. J Neuroimmunol, 2009, 214(6): 104-108.
15. Majoie HJ, Rijkers K, Berfelo MW, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in refractory epilepsy: effects on pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood. Neuroimmunomodulation, 2011, 18(1): 52-56.
16. Koopman FA, Chavan SS, Miljko S, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation inhibits cytokine production and attenuates disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2016, 113(7): 8284-8289.
17. McGregor A, Wheless T, Baumgartner J, et al. Right-sided vagus nerve stimulation as a treatment for refractory epilepsy in humans. Epilepsia, 2005, 46(3): 91-96.
18. Amar AP, Marotta G, Visani E, et al. An institutional experience with cervical vagus nerve trunk stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy: rationale, technique, and outcome. Neurosurgery, 1998, 43(6): 1265-1276.
19. Kirse DJ, Rolston JD, Harward SC, et al. Vagus nerve stimulator implantation in children. Arch Otolaryngol, 2002, 128(7): 1263-1268.
20. Vaiman M, Heyman E, Lotan G. Neurological results of the modified treatment of epilepsy by stimulation of the vagus nerve. Childs Nerv Syst, 2017, 33(2): 2017-2022.
21. Hauptman JS, Mathern GW. Vagal nerve stimulation for pharmacoresistant epilepsy in children. Surg Neurol Int, 2012, 3(suppl): 269-274.
22. Lotan G, Vaiman M. Treatment of epilepsy by stimulation of the vagus nerve from head-and-neck surgical point of view. The Laryngoscope, 2015, 125(3): 1352-1355.
23. Bodin E, Le Moing AG, Bourel-Ponchel E, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy in 29 children. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 20(3): 346-351.
24. Yowtak J, Jenkins P, Giller C. Transection of omohyoid muscle as an aid during vagus nerve stimulator implantation. World Neurosurgery, 2017, 99(3): 118-121.
25. Kawai K, Tanaka T, Baba H, et al. Outcome of vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: the first three years of a prospective Japanese registry. Epileptic Disord, 2017, 19(3): 327-338.
26. Barbella G, Cocco I, Freri E, et al. Transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulatio (t-VNS): an adjunctive treatment option for refractory epilepsy. Seizure, 2018, 60(8): 115-119.
27. Chambers A, Bowen JM. Electrical stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser, 2013, 13(8): 1-37.
28. Frost M, Forster CR, Baise C, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia, 2001, 42(5): 1148-1152.
29. Cukiert A, Cukiert CM, Burattini JA, et al. A prospective long-term study on the outcome after vagus nerve stimulation at maximally tolerated current intensity in a cohort of children with refractory secondary generalized epilepsy. Neuromodulation, 2013, 16(6): 30-31.
30. Klinkenberg S, Watemberg N, Boxer M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy: a randomized controlled trial. Dev Med Child Neurol, 2012, 54(5): 855-861.
31. Menascu S, Kremer U, Schiller Y, et al. The Israeli retrospective multicenter open-label study evaluating vagus nerve stimulation efficacy in children and adults. Israel Medical Association Journal, 2013, 15(11): 673-677.
32. Colicchio G, Mangano FT, Gonsalves C, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsies in different age, aetiology and duration. Child Nerv Syst, 2010, 26(7): 811-819.
33. Arya R, Greiner HM, Lewis A, et al. Predictors of response to vagus nerve stimulation in childhood-onset medically refractory epilepsy. Journal of Child Neurology, 2014, 29(12): 1652-1659.
34. Tomei KL, Mau CY, GhaliM, et al. Vagal nerve stimulation for medically refractory epilepsy in Angelman syndrome: a series of three cases. Childs Nerv Syst, 2018, 34(6): 395-400.
35. Serdaroglu A, Connolly MB, French J, et al. Long term effect of vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric intractable epilepsy: an extended follow-up. Childs Nerv Syst, 2016, 32(2): 641-646.
36. Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia, 2017, 58(4): 512-521.
37. Englot DJ, Chang EF, AugusteKI. Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: a meta-analysis of efficacy and predictors of response A review. Journal of Neurosurgery, 2011, 115(8): 1248-1255.
38. Morris GL, Bouthiller A, Scavarda D, et al. Evidence-based guideline update: vagus nerve stimulation for the treatment of epilepsy: report of the guideline development subcommittee of the american academy of neurology. Epilepsy Curr, 2013, 13(4): 297-303.
39. Dravet C, Oguni H. Dravet syndrome (severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy). Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013, 111: 627-633.
40. Zamponi N, Passamonti C, Cappanera S, et al. Clinical course of young patients with Dravet syndrome after vagal nerve stimulation. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2011, 15(1): 8-14.
41. Rossignol E, Lortie A, Thomas T, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric epileptic syndromes. Seizure, 2009, 18(1): 34-37.
42. Shahwan A, Bailey C, Maxiner W, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in children: more to VNS than seizure frequency reduction. Epilepsia, 2009, 50(5): 1220-1228.
43. Cerminara C, Marciano S, Bombardieri R, et al. Epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis complex. Journal of Pediatric Epilepsy, 2015, 5(1): 64-69.
44. Curatolo P, Bombardieri R, Jozwiak S. Tuberous sclerosis. The Lancet, 2008, 372(4): 657-668.
45. Lagae L, Verstrepen A, Nada A, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with drug-resistant epilepsy: age at implantation and shorter duration of epilepsy as predictors of better efficacy? Epileptic Disorders, 2015, 17(3): 308-314.
46. Zamponi N, Petrelli C, Passamonti C, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for refractory epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis. Pediatric Neurology, 2009, 43(3): 29-34.
47. Elliott RE, Carlson C, Kalhorn SP, et al. Refractory epilepsy in tuberous sclerosis: vagus nerve stimulation with or without subsequent resective surgery. Epilepsy & Behavior, 2009, 16(3): 454-460.
48. Hunter RM, Van Roost D, Thiery E, et al. The health, education, and social care costs of school-aged children with active epilepsy: a population-based study. Epilepsia, 2015, 56(4): 1056-1064.
49. Laxer KD, Trinka E, Hirsch LJ, et al. The consequences of refractory epilepsy and its treatment. Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 37(1): 59-70.
50. Patel A, Wang L, Gedela S. Health care utilization following vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric epilepsy patients from a pediatric accountable care organization. Journal of Child Neurology, 2018, 33(3): 136-139.
51. Aburahma SK, Alzoubi FQ, Hammouri HM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in a developing country: a long term follow up study and cost utility analysis. Seizure, 2015, 25(6): 167-172.
52. Helmers SL, Duh MS, Guérin A, et al. Clinical outcomes, quality of life, and costs associated with implantation of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 16(5): 449-458.
53. Jette N, Engel JJr. Refractory epilepsy is a life-threatening disease: lest we forget. Neurology, 2016, 86(3): 1932-1933.
54. Sherman EM, Connolly MB, Slick DJ, et al. Quality of life and seizure outcome after vagus nerve stimulation in children with intractable epilepsy. J Child Neurol, 2008, 23(9): 991-998.
55. Terra VC, Furlanetti LL, Nunes AA, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in pediatric patients: is it really worthwhile? Epilepsy Behav, 2014, 31(2): 329-333.
56. Ryzi M, Brázdil M, Novák Z, et al. Long-term vagus nerve stimulation in children with focal epilepsy. Acta neurologica Scandinavica, 2013, 127(5): 316-322.
57. Thompson EM, Wozniak SE, Roberts CM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for partial and generalized epilepsy from infancy to adolescence. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2012, 10(3): 200-205.
58. Majkowska-Zwolinska B, Zwolinski P, Roszkowski M, et al. Long-term results of vagus nerve stimulation in children and adolescents with drug-resistant epilepsy. Childs Nerv Syst, 2012, 28(3): 621-628.
59. Elliott RE, Rodgers SD, Bassani L, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for children with treatment-resistant epilepsy: a consecutive series of 141 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2011, 7(5): 491-500.
60. Van Wagoner ZD, Evans DC, Askegard-Giesmann JR, et al. Perforated peptic ulcer in a child with a vagus nerve stimulator for seizure control. Brain Stimul, 2013, 6(1): 972-973.
61. Sheck L, Meyer HD. Episodic monocular vision loss after implantation of a vagal nerve stimulator. Ann Intern Med, 2011, 155(8): 648-649.
62. Rychlicki F, Zamponi N, Cesaroni E, et al. Complications of vagal nerve stimulation for epilepsy in children. Neurosurg Rev, 2006, 29(2): 103-107.
63. Cantarin-Extremera V, Ruíz-Falcó-Rojas ML, Tamaríz-Martel-Moreno A, et al. Late-onset periodic bradycardia during vagus nerve stimulation in a pediatric patient: a new case and review of the literature. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2016, 20(4): 678-683.
64. Clark AJ, Kuperman RA, Auguste KI, et al. Intractable episodic bradycardia resulting from progressive lead traction in an epileptic child with a vagus nerve stimulator: a delayed complication. J Neurosurg Pediatr, 2012, 9(2): 389-393.
65. Borusiak P, Zilbauer M, Cagnoli S, et al. Late-onset cardiac arrhythmia associated with vagus nerve stimulation. J Neurol, 2009, 256(10): 1578-1580.
66. Amark P, Stodberg T, Wallstedt L. Late onset bradyarrhythmia during vagus nerve stimulation. Epilepsia, 2007, 48(5): 1023-1024.
67. Fernandez L, Gedela S, Tamber M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children less tran 3 years with medically intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Res, 2015, 112(5): 37-42.

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MRI、¹⁸F-FDG PET 以及 PET/MRI 在难治性癫痫术前精准定位中的价值
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脑损伤生物标记物研究进展

Journal of Epilepsy

迷走神经刺激术治疗儿童难治性癫痫的研究进展

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